Racial and Religious Determinants of Terrorism in Western Europe
Palabras clave:
terrorismo y estado, democracia y extremismo, seguridad nacional, determinantes, conflictos
Resumen
El acercamiento gradual entre pueblos, culturas, creencias implica numerosos conflictos con los pueblos indígenas por motivos étnicos o religiosos. Estos conflictos tienden a convertirse en articulaciones de posiciones radicales y actividades extremistas. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar el estado actual de los actos terroristas e identificar los determinantes del terrorismo por motivos raciales y religiosos en Europa Occidental. Se empleo el método estadístico, comparativo, análisis gráficos, análisis del Índice Global de Terrorismo; Los informes de la Unión Europea sobre la situación y las tendencias del terrorismo, así como la investigación sobre cuestiones relacionadas con el terrorismo para 2011-2021, de modo que se utilizaron como métodos de investigación empíricos. Se determina que el Reino Unido, Francia, Alemania, Grecia, Bélgica, España, Italia y Suecia están sujetos al mayor riesgo de actos terroristas. Se comprobó que los determinantes del terrorismo se localizan en relación con cuestiones clave relacionadas con el estado de la esfera económica, el desarrollo social, así como la esfera espiritual y cultural. Se hace hincapié en la necesidad de superar los problemas asociados con las actividades terroristas mediante la formulación de una política de medios nacionales para resolver los problemas étnicos y raciales y la cooperación internacional activa.
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BMI. 2018. Verfassungsschutzbericht 2017. Bundesministerium des Innern. Berlin, Germany.
BROCKHOFF, Sarah; KRIEGER, Tim; MEIERRIEKS, Daniel. 2016. “Heterogeneous terrorism: determinants of left-wing and nationalist- separatist terrorism in Western Europe” In: Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy. Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 393-401.
BRÜCKNER, Markus; GRÜNER, Hans Peter. 2020. “Economic growth and political extremism” In: Public Choice. Vol. 185, No. 1, pp. 131-159.
CARTER, Elisabeth. 2018. “Right-wing extremism/radicalism: Reconstructing the concept” In: Journal of Political Ideologies. Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 157- 182.
COGGINS, Bridget. 2015. “Does State Failure Cause Terrorism? An Empirical Analysis (1999–2008)” In: Journal of Conflict Resolution. Vol. 59, No. 3, pp. 455–483.
EGGER, Clara; MAGNI-BERTON, Raùl. 2021. “The role of Islamist ideology in shaping Muslims believers’ attitudes toward terrorism: Evidence from Europe” In: Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. Vol. 44, No. 7, pp. 581-604.
EL-OJEILI, Chamsy; TAYLOR, Dylan. 2020. “The Extremism Industry: A Political Logic of Post-Hegemonic Liberalism” In: Critical Sociology. Vol. 46, No. 7-8, pp. 1141-1155.
EUROPOL. 2021, European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report. Publications Office of the European Union. Luxembourg City, Luxembourg.
FISCHER, Max. 2014. One in six French people say they support ISIS. Vox. Available online. In: https://www.vox.com/ 2014/8/26/6067123/isis- poll. Consultation date: 10/01/2021.
FREYTAG, Andreas; KRÜGER, Jens; MEIERRIEKS, Daniel; SCHNEIDER, Friedrich. 2011. “The Origins of Terrorism: Cross-Country Estimates of SocioEconomic Determinants of Terrorism” In: European Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 27, pp. S5–S16.
FROIO, Caterina; GANESH, Bharath. 2018. “The transnationalisation of far right discourse on Twitter” In: European Societies. Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 513-539.
GASSEBNER, Martin; LUECHINGER, Simon. 2011. “Lock, Stock, and Barrel: A Comprehensive Assessment of the Determinants of Terror” In: Public Choice. Vol. 149, pp. 235–261.
HALIKIOPOULOU, Daphne. 2017. A “Right-wing Populist Momentum? A Review of 2017 Elections Across Europe” In: Journal of Common Market Studies. Vol.56, pp. 63-73.
HALKOS, George; MANAGI, Shunsuke; ZISIADOU, Argyro. 2017. “Analyzing the Determinants of Terrorist Attacks and their Market Reactions” In: Economic Analysis and Policy. Vol. 54, pp. 57–73.
HOU, Dongfang. 2021. “The Formation of Terrorist Groups: An Empirical Analysis” In: Defence and Peace Economics, pp. 1-10.
INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMICS AND PEACE. 2018. Global Terrorism Index 2018: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism. Institute for Economics and Peace. Sydney, Australia.
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INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMICS AND PEACE. 2020. Global Terrorism Index 2020: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism, Sydney, November 2020. Available online. In: http://visionofhumanity.org/reports. Consultation date: 04/01/2021.
ISMAIL, Aisha; AMJAD, Shehla. 2014. “Determinants of Terrorism in Pakistan: An Empirical Investigation” In: Economic Modelling. Vol. 37, pp. 320- 331.
KIS-KATOS, Krisztina; LIEBERT, Helge; SCHULZE, Günther. 2014. “On the Heterogeneity of Terror” In: European Economic Review. Vol. 68, No. 1, pp. 116-136.
LERNER, Richard. M. 2018. Concepts and Theories of Human Development, 4th ed. Routledge. New York, USA.
LØVLIEN, Edvard. 2021. “Radical Beings? How Group Identities Impact Willingness to Justify Terrorism” In: Perspectives on Terrorism. Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 33-57.
MCALEXANDER, Richard. 2020. “How are immigration and terrorism related? An analysis of right-and left-wing terrorism in Western Europe, 1980–2004” In: Journal of Global Security Studies. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 179-
195.
MEIERRIEKS, Daniel. 2014. “Economic determinants of terrorism. Understanding Terrorism (Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development)” In: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 25-49.
MUDDE, Camel. 1995. “Right-wing extremism analyzed: a comparative analysis of the ideologies of three alleged right-wing extremist parties (NPD, NDP, CP’86)” In: European Journal of Political Research. Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 203-224.
NGARI, Allan; REVA, Denys. 2017. How ethnic and religious discrimination drive violent extremism. Available online. In: https://community- democracies.org/app/uploads/2018/06/aitwr-4-1.pdf. Consultation date: 10/01/2021.
NURUNNABI, Mohammad; SGHAIER, Asma. 2018. “Socioeconomic Determinants of Terrorism” In: Digest of Middle East Studies. Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 278-302.
OKAFOR, Godwin; PIESSE, Jenifer. 2018. “Empirical investigation into the determinants of terrorism: Evidence from fragile states” In: Defence and Peace Economics. Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 697-711.
PAIN, Edward. 2007. “Xenophobia and ethnopolotical extremism in post- soviet Russia: dynamics and growth factors” In: Nationalities Papers. Vol.35, No. 5, pp.895-911.
POVEDA, Alexander Cotte. 2012. “Violence and Economic Development in Colombian Cities: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis” In: Journal of International Development. Vol. 24, No. 7, pp. 809-827.
RICHARDS, Julian. 2017. Extremism, radicalization and security: An identity theory approach. Springer. Berlin, Germany.
ROMANO, Dani; ROWE, Steve; PHELPS, Rob. 2019. “Correlates of terror: Trends in types of terrorist groups and fatalities inflicted” In: Cogent Social Sciences. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1584-1911.
SANSO-NAVARRO, Marcos; SANZ GRACIA, Fernando; VERA-CABELLO, Maria. 2021. “Terrorism Determinants, Model Uncertainty and Space in Colombia” In: Defence and Peace Economics, pp. 1-20.
SANSO-NAVARRO, Marcos; VERA-CABELLO, Maria. 2020. “The socioeconomic determinants of terrorism: A bayesian model averaging approach” In: Defence and Peace Economics. Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 269-288.
SHAHBAZ, Muhammad. 2013. “Linkages between Inflation, Economic Growth and Terrorism in Pakistan” In: Economic Modelling. Vol. 32, pp. 496- 506.
STRAUME, Ingerid. S. 2012. “The survival of politics” In: Critical Horizons. Vol.13, No. 1, pp. 113-133.
TAHIR, Muhammad. 2020. “Terrorism and its Determinants: Panel Data Evidence from 94 Countries” In: Applied Research in Quality of Life. Vol.15, No. 1, pp. 1-16.
TAHIR, Muhammad; IBNE AFZAL, Mustafa; AFRIDI, Miham; NASEEM, Ibrim; BIN SAEED, Barb. 2019. “Terrorism and its determinants in the sub-Saharan Africa region: Some new insights” In: African Development Review. Vol.31, No. 3, pp. 393-406.
TARLOW, Peter. 2017. “The interaction of religion and terrorism” In: IJSSTH, Vol. 16, pp. 1-24.
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. 2018. Global terrorism database codebook. Available online. In: https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/downloads/ Codebook.pdf. Consultation date: 03/01/2021.
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. 2019. Global Terrorism Overview: Terrorism in 2019. Available online. In: https://www.start.umd.edu/pubs/START_ GTD_GlobalTerrorismOverview2019_July2020.pdf. Consultation date: 03/01/2021.
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. 2021. Global Terrorism Database. Available online. In: https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/about/. Consultation date: 10/01/2021.
VAN BERGEN, Diana; FEDDESET, Allard; DOOSJE, Bertjan; PELS, Tomas. 2015. “Collective identity factors and the attitude toward violence in defense of ethnicity or religion among Muslim youth of Turkish and Moroccan Descent” In: International Journal of Intercultural Relations. Vol. 47, pp. 89-100.
AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL AND THE OPEN SOCIETY FOUNDATIONS. 2021. A Human Rights Guide for Researching Racial and Religious Discrimination in Counterterrorism in Europe. Available online. In: https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/events/a-human- rights-guide-for-researching-racial-and-religious-discrimination-in- counterterrorism-in-europe. Consultation date: 10/01/2021.
BEELMANN, Andreas. 2020. “A social-developmental model of radicalization: A systematic integration of existing theories and empirical research” In: International Journal of Conflict and Violence. Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 1-14.
BEELMANN, Andreas; JAHNKE, Sara; NEUDECKER, Clara. 2017. “Prävention von Radikalisierungsprozessen: Grundlagen entwicklungsorientierter Maßnahmen” In: Neue Kriminalpolitik. Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 440–49.
BMI. 2018. Verfassungsschutzbericht 2017. Bundesministerium des Innern. Berlin, Germany.
BROCKHOFF, Sarah; KRIEGER, Tim; MEIERRIEKS, Daniel. 2016. “Heterogeneous terrorism: determinants of left-wing and nationalist- separatist terrorism in Western Europe” In: Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy. Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 393-401.
BRÜCKNER, Markus; GRÜNER, Hans Peter. 2020. “Economic growth and political extremism” In: Public Choice. Vol. 185, No. 1, pp. 131-159.
CARTER, Elisabeth. 2018. “Right-wing extremism/radicalism: Reconstructing the concept” In: Journal of Political Ideologies. Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 157- 182.
COGGINS, Bridget. 2015. “Does State Failure Cause Terrorism? An Empirical Analysis (1999–2008)” In: Journal of Conflict Resolution. Vol. 59, No. 3, pp. 455–483.
EGGER, Clara; MAGNI-BERTON, Raùl. 2021. “The role of Islamist ideology in shaping Muslims believers’ attitudes toward terrorism: Evidence from Europe” In: Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. Vol. 44, No. 7, pp. 581-604.
EL-OJEILI, Chamsy; TAYLOR, Dylan. 2020. “The Extremism Industry: A Political Logic of Post-Hegemonic Liberalism” In: Critical Sociology. Vol. 46, No. 7-8, pp. 1141-1155.
EUROPOL. 2021, European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report. Publications Office of the European Union. Luxembourg City, Luxembourg.
FISCHER, Max. 2014. One in six French people say they support ISIS. Vox. Available online. In: https://www.vox.com/ 2014/8/26/6067123/isis- poll. Consultation date: 10/01/2021.
FREYTAG, Andreas; KRÜGER, Jens; MEIERRIEKS, Daniel; SCHNEIDER, Friedrich. 2011. “The Origins of Terrorism: Cross-Country Estimates of SocioEconomic Determinants of Terrorism” In: European Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 27, pp. S5–S16.
FROIO, Caterina; GANESH, Bharath. 2018. “The transnationalisation of far right discourse on Twitter” In: European Societies. Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 513-539.
GASSEBNER, Martin; LUECHINGER, Simon. 2011. “Lock, Stock, and Barrel: A Comprehensive Assessment of the Determinants of Terror” In: Public Choice. Vol. 149, pp. 235–261.
HALIKIOPOULOU, Daphne. 2017. A “Right-wing Populist Momentum? A Review of 2017 Elections Across Europe” In: Journal of Common Market Studies. Vol.56, pp. 63-73.
HALKOS, George; MANAGI, Shunsuke; ZISIADOU, Argyro. 2017. “Analyzing the Determinants of Terrorist Attacks and their Market Reactions” In: Economic Analysis and Policy. Vol. 54, pp. 57–73.
HOU, Dongfang. 2021. “The Formation of Terrorist Groups: An Empirical Analysis” In: Defence and Peace Economics, pp. 1-10.
INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMICS AND PEACE. 2018. Global Terrorism Index 2018: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism. Institute for Economics and Peace. Sydney, Australia.
INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMICS AND PEACE. 2019. Global Terrorism Index 2019: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism, Sydney, November 2019. Available online. In: http://visionofhumanity.org/reports. Consultation date: 10/01/2021.
INSTITUTE FOR ECONOMICS AND PEACE. 2020. Global Terrorism Index 2020: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism, Sydney, November 2020. Available online. In: http://visionofhumanity.org/reports. Consultation date: 04/01/2021.
ISMAIL, Aisha; AMJAD, Shehla. 2014. “Determinants of Terrorism in Pakistan: An Empirical Investigation” In: Economic Modelling. Vol. 37, pp. 320- 331.
KIS-KATOS, Krisztina; LIEBERT, Helge; SCHULZE, Günther. 2014. “On the Heterogeneity of Terror” In: European Economic Review. Vol. 68, No. 1, pp. 116-136.
LERNER, Richard. M. 2018. Concepts and Theories of Human Development, 4th ed. Routledge. New York, USA.
LØVLIEN, Edvard. 2021. “Radical Beings? How Group Identities Impact Willingness to Justify Terrorism” In: Perspectives on Terrorism. Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 33-57.
MCALEXANDER, Richard. 2020. “How are immigration and terrorism related? An analysis of right-and left-wing terrorism in Western Europe, 1980–2004” In: Journal of Global Security Studies. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 179-
195.
MEIERRIEKS, Daniel. 2014. “Economic determinants of terrorism. Understanding Terrorism (Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development)” In: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 25-49.
MUDDE, Camel. 1995. “Right-wing extremism analyzed: a comparative analysis of the ideologies of three alleged right-wing extremist parties (NPD, NDP, CP’86)” In: European Journal of Political Research. Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 203-224.
NGARI, Allan; REVA, Denys. 2017. How ethnic and religious discrimination drive violent extremism. Available online. In: https://community- democracies.org/app/uploads/2018/06/aitwr-4-1.pdf. Consultation date: 10/01/2021.
NURUNNABI, Mohammad; SGHAIER, Asma. 2018. “Socioeconomic Determinants of Terrorism” In: Digest of Middle East Studies. Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 278-302.
OKAFOR, Godwin; PIESSE, Jenifer. 2018. “Empirical investigation into the determinants of terrorism: Evidence from fragile states” In: Defence and Peace Economics. Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 697-711.
PAIN, Edward. 2007. “Xenophobia and ethnopolotical extremism in post- soviet Russia: dynamics and growth factors” In: Nationalities Papers. Vol.35, No. 5, pp.895-911.
POVEDA, Alexander Cotte. 2012. “Violence and Economic Development in Colombian Cities: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis” In: Journal of International Development. Vol. 24, No. 7, pp. 809-827.
RICHARDS, Julian. 2017. Extremism, radicalization and security: An identity theory approach. Springer. Berlin, Germany.
ROMANO, Dani; ROWE, Steve; PHELPS, Rob. 2019. “Correlates of terror: Trends in types of terrorist groups and fatalities inflicted” In: Cogent Social Sciences. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1584-1911.
SANSO-NAVARRO, Marcos; SANZ GRACIA, Fernando; VERA-CABELLO, Maria. 2021. “Terrorism Determinants, Model Uncertainty and Space in Colombia” In: Defence and Peace Economics, pp. 1-20.
SANSO-NAVARRO, Marcos; VERA-CABELLO, Maria. 2020. “The socioeconomic determinants of terrorism: A bayesian model averaging approach” In: Defence and Peace Economics. Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 269-288.
SHAHBAZ, Muhammad. 2013. “Linkages between Inflation, Economic Growth and Terrorism in Pakistan” In: Economic Modelling. Vol. 32, pp. 496- 506.
STRAUME, Ingerid. S. 2012. “The survival of politics” In: Critical Horizons. Vol.13, No. 1, pp. 113-133.
TAHIR, Muhammad. 2020. “Terrorism and its Determinants: Panel Data Evidence from 94 Countries” In: Applied Research in Quality of Life. Vol.15, No. 1, pp. 1-16.
TAHIR, Muhammad; IBNE AFZAL, Mustafa; AFRIDI, Miham; NASEEM, Ibrim; BIN SAEED, Barb. 2019. “Terrorism and its determinants in the sub-Saharan Africa region: Some new insights” In: African Development Review. Vol.31, No. 3, pp. 393-406.
TARLOW, Peter. 2017. “The interaction of religion and terrorism” In: IJSSTH, Vol. 16, pp. 1-24.
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. 2018. Global terrorism database codebook. Available online. In: https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/downloads/ Codebook.pdf. Consultation date: 03/01/2021.
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. 2019. Global Terrorism Overview: Terrorism in 2019. Available online. In: https://www.start.umd.edu/pubs/START_ GTD_GlobalTerrorismOverview2019_July2020.pdf. Consultation date: 03/01/2021.
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. 2021. Global Terrorism Database. Available online. In: https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/about/. Consultation date: 10/01/2021.
VAN BERGEN, Diana; FEDDESET, Allard; DOOSJE, Bertjan; PELS, Tomas. 2015. “Collective identity factors and the attitude toward violence in defense of ethnicity or religion among Muslim youth of Turkish and Moroccan Descent” In: International Journal of Intercultural Relations. Vol. 47, pp. 89-100.
Publicado
2021-12-15
Cómo citar
Marysyuk, K. B., Huzela, M. V., Slotvinska, N. D., Svoboda, I., & Kudrya, I. G. (2021). Racial and Religious Determinants of Terrorism in Western Europe. Cuestiones Políticas, 39(71), 44-61. https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.3971.02
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