Capsaicina no controle de Spodoptera frugiperda em milho (Zea mays L.) var. Blanco Urubamba
Palavras-chave:
pimentas, eficácia, bioinseticidas, infestação, rendimento
Resumo
Spodoptera frugiperda Smith (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) causa perdas severas em culturas de milho (Zea mays L.), o que leva à avaliação de alternativas de manejo sustentável. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi determinar a eficácia da capsaicina no controle de S. frugiperda em milho Blanco Urubamba var. Utilizou-se o delineamento em blocos casualizados com seis tratamentos e três repetições: quatro concentrações de capsaicina solúvel em água (6,70; 10,05; 13,40 e 16,75 mL.L-¹), extrato de rocoto (Capsicum pubescens Ruiz & Pav. (Solanaceae), 50 g.L-¹) e uma testemunha absoluta. As aplicações foram feitas aos 80, 90, 100, 110 e 120 dias após o plantio (das). A dose de 16,75 mL.L-¹ foi a mais efetiva, reduzindo a densidade larval de 3,12 para 0,13 larvas por planta, o percentual de infestação de 61,12 para 2,78 %, com eficácia de controle de 96,69 %. Concentrações intermediárias (13,40 e 10,05 mL.L-¹) também apresentaram efeitos significativos, com eficácias finais de 93,83 e 85,19 %, respectivamente. T1 apresentou eficácia moderada (78,30 %), enquanto T5 registrou os menores valores de controle (72,86 %), sendo observadas infestações crescentes na testemunha. Em termos de produtividade, o T4 (16,75 mL.L-¹) produziu espigas com 16,77 cm de comprimento e 385,13 g de peso médio, atingindo uma produtividade de 17,12 t.ha-¹, contra 9,54 t.ha-¹ da testemunha. Conclui-se que a capsaicina hidrossolúvel, especialmente na dose de 16,75 mL.L-¹, demonstrou ser uma alternativa eficaz e sustentável para o manejo de S. frugiperda na cultura do milho.
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Referências
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Aza-González, C., Núñez-Palenius, H., & Ochoa-Alejo, N. (2011). Molecular biology of capsaicinoid biosynthesis in chili pepper (Capsicum spp.). Plant Cell Reports, 30, 695-706. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00299-010-0968-8
Cabrera Verdezoto, R., Morán Morán, J., Mora Velasquez, B., Molina Triviño, H., Moncayo Carreño, O., Díaz Ocampo, E., & Cabrera Verdesoto, C. (2016). Evaluación de dos insecticidas naturales y un químico en el control de plagas en el cultivo de frejol en el litoral ecuatoriano. Idesia (Arica), 34(5), 27-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-34292016005000025
Capinera, J. L. (2017). Encyclopedia of entomology. Springer.
Cárdenas-De la Peña, A., Muñoz-MadridAlba, A., Montero-Solís, F., & Hernández-Arzaba, J. (2022). Factibilidad económica de biopreparados: Una alternativa en la producción de hortalizas en Valle de Santiago, Guanajuato, México. Agro-Divulgación, 2(4), 49-51. https://agrodivulgacion-colpos.org/index.php/1agrodivulgacion1/article/view/92
Castillo-López, I., Rodríguez-Africano, P., Montes-Pérez, R., & González-Valderrama, D. (2017). Fauna silvestre que afecta los cultivos en Boyacá y control del daño a cultivos de maíz. Ciencia y Agricultura, 14(1), 75-84. https://doi.org/10.19053/01228420.v14.n1.2017.6090
Caterina, M., Schumacher, M., Tominaga, M., Rosen, T., Levine, J., & Julius, D. (1997). The capsaicin receptor: a heat-activated ion channel in the pain pathway. Nature, 389(6653), 816-824. https://www.nature.com/articles/39807
Chabaane, Y., Arce, C., Glauser, G., & Benrey, B. (2021). Altered capsaicin levels in domesticated chili pepper varieties affect the interaction between a generalist herbivore and its ectoparasitoid. Journal of Pest Science, 95, 735-747. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10340-021-01399-8
Chapman, J., Williams, T., Martínez, A., Cisneros, J., Caballero, P., Cave, R., & Goulson, D. (1999). Does cannibalism in Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) reduce the risk of Bt resistance? Journal of Economic Entomology, 92(4), 935-940. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/92.4.935
Clark, P., Molina-Ochoa, J., Martinelli, S., Skoda, S., Isenhour, D., Lee, D., Krumm, J., & Foster, J. (2007). Population variation of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, in the Western Hemisphere. Journal of Insect Science, 7(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1673/031.007.0501
Cowles, R., Keller, J., & Miller, J. (1989). Pungent spices, ground red pepper, and synthetic capsaicin as onion fly ovipositional deterrents. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 15, 719-730. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/bf01014714
Davis, F., Ng, S., & Williams, W. (1992). Visual rating scales for screening whorl-stage corn for resistance to fall armyworm. Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station. Technical Bulletin, 186, 1-9.
Du Plessis, H., Schlemmer, M., & Van den Berg, J. (2020). The effect of temperature on the development of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects, 11(4), 228. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects11040228
Figueroa Gualteros, A., Castro Triviño, E., & Castro Salazar, H. (2019). Efecto bioplaguicida de extractos vegetales para el control de Spodoptera frugiperda en el cultivo de maíz (Zea mays). Acta Biológica Colombiana, 24(1), 58-66. https://doi.org/10.15446/abc.v24n1.69333
Gonçalves, G., Lira, S., GlSSI, D., & Vendramim, J. (2021). Bioactivity of extracts from solanaceae against Zabrotes subfasciatus. Acta Biológica Colombiana, 26(1), 62-71. https://doi.org/10.15446/abc.v26n1.84712
Henderson, F., & Tilton, W. (1955). Tests with acaricides against the brown wheat mite 12. Journal of Economic Entomology, 48(2), 157-161. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/48.2.157
Holdridge, L. (1987). Ecología basada en zonas de vida. Agroamerica.
Hori, M., Nakamura, H., Fujii, Y., Suzuki, Y., & Matsuda, K. (2011). Chemicals affecting the feeding preference of the Solanaceae‐feeding lady beetle Henosepilachna vigintioctomaculata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Journal of Applied Entomology, 135(1‐2), 121-131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.2010.01519.x
Ileer, V., Peralta, J., Palacios, C., & Burgos, A. (2022). Bioinsecticidas elaborados con extractos botánicos utilizados contra Spodoptera spp. en el cultivo de sandía (Citrullus lanatus T.) en Los Ríos-Ecuador. Uniciencia, 36(1), 659-669. http://doi.org/10.15359/ru.36-1.42
Kim, S., Boo, K., Na, Y., & Tak, J. (2023). Screening of insecticidal activity of plant essential oils and extract-based formulations against four agricultural insect pests and their risk assessment. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 26(4), 102127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2023.102127
Lamsal, S., Sibi, S., & Yadav, S. (2020). Fall armyworm in South Asia: Threats and management. Asian Journal of Advances in Agricultural Research, 13(3), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaar/2020/v13i330106
Li, B., Yang, M., Shi, R., & Ye, M. (2019). Insecticidal activity of natural capsaicinoids against several agricultural insects. Natural Product Communications, 14(7). https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X19862695
Madhumathy, A., Aivazi, A., & Vijayan, V. (2007). Larvicidal efficacy of Capsicum annum against Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases, 44(3), 223-226. PMID: 17896626.
Meckelmann, S., Jansen, C., Riegel, D., van Zonneveld, M., Ríos, L., Peña, K., Mueller-Seitz, E., & Petz, M. (2015). Phytochemicals in native Peruvian Capsicum pubescens (Rocoto). European Food Research and Technology, 241(6), 817-825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-015-2506-y
Ministerio de Desarrollo Agrario y Riego. (2020). Anuario estadísticas de la producción agrícola y ganadera. Lima, Perú, Dirección de Estadística Agraria. http://frenteweb.minagri.gob.pe/sisca/?mod=consultacult
Miranda, A., Espejo, Y., Salas, J., Gonzales, H., Aguilera, J., & Martínez, L. (2021). Bioplaguicidas: Mecanismos de acción biocida en insectos plaga. Research, Society and Development, 10(7), e42010716893-e42010716893. https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i7.16893
Montezano, D., Sosa-Gómez, D., Specht, A., Roque-Specht, V., Sousa-Silva, J., Paula-Moraes, S., Peterson, J., & Hunt, T. (2018). Host plants of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the Americas. African Entomology, 26(2), 286-300. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-112bc26060
Negrete, F., & Morales, J. (2003). El gusano cogollero del maíz: (Spodoptera frugiperda. Smith): Manejo del gusano cogollero del maíz utilizando extractos de plantas. Corpoica. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12324/2220
Neira, M., & Pérez, E. (2020). Manejo ecológico para el control de Spodoptera frugiperda en el cultivo de maíz amarillo duro en las regiones de Lambayeque y La Libertad. Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria - INIA. https://repositorio.inia.gob.pe/handle/20.500.12955/1148
Paredes-Sánchez, F., Rivera, G., Bocanegra-García, V., Martínez-Padrón, H., Berrones-Morales, M., Niño-García, N., & Herrera-Mayorga, V. (2021). Avances en estrategias de control contra Spodoptera frugiperda. Una revisión. Moléculas, 26(18), 5587. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26185587
Rakesh, V., Patgiri, P., Borah, A., Nandhini, D., & Gogoi, I. (2024). Comparative study on the repellency and chemical profiles of different chilli peppers formulations against Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in stored wheat. Journal of Stored Products Research, 106, 102312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2024.102312
Reyes-Escogido, M., Gonzalez-Mondragon, E., & Vazquez-Tzompantzi, E. (2011). Chemical and pharmacological aspects of capsaicin. Molecules, 16(2), 1253-1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules16021253
Salgado-Aristizabal, N., Galvis-Nieto, J., Narvaez-Perez, J., Jurado-Erazo, D., Rodríguez, L., & Orrego, C. (2024). Evaluation of a sustainable production of encapsulated chili pepper powder (Capsicum pubescens) through convective and vacuum drying. Processes, 12(10), 2154. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102154
Sánchez-Alonso, I., Fonseca-González, A., Olmedo-Juárez, A., Olivares-Pérez, J., González-Cortazar, M., Monteon-Ojeda, A., & Rojas Hernández, S. (2024). Insecticidal activity of two organic extracts from Libidibia coriaria (Jacq.) Schltdl. fruits against Spodoptera frugiperda JE Smith. Natural Product Research, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2024.2368274
Santoa, L., & Santos, L. (2024). Effect of Capsicum chinense as a botanical insecticide on the mortality of Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in soybeans. Contribuciones a las Ciencias Sociales, 17(13), e13891. https://doi.org/10.55905/revconv.17n.13-370
Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología del Perú. (2024). Datos climáticos históricos de la región Huánuco 1991-2020. Plataforma de Datos Climáticos. https://www.senamhi.gob.pe
Sinha, R., Shaham, Y., & Heilig, M. (2011). Translational and reverse translational research on the role of stress in drug craving and relapse. Psychopharmacology, 218, 69-82. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-011-2263-y
Stirle, J., Matias, J., Mendes, G., Moscardini, V., Maia, J., Michaud, J., & Gontijo, P. (2024). Differential susceptibility of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to single versus pyramided Bt traits in Brazilian soybean: what doesn't kill you makes you stronger?. Pest Management Science, 80(12), 6535-6544. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.8391
Tang, X., Lyu, B., Lu, H., Tang, J., & Zhang, Y. (2024). Effects of cannibalism on the growth and development of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). International Journal of Pest Management, 70(4), 1423-1433. https://doi.org/10.1080/09670874.2022.2140856
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Ahn, S., Badenes-Pérez, F., & Heckel, D. (2011). A host-plant specialist, Helicoverpa assulta, is more tolerant to capsaicin from Capsicum annuum than other noctuid species. Journal of Insect Physiology, 57(9), 1212-1219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2011.05.015
Aza-González, C., Núñez-Palenius, H., & Ochoa-Alejo, N. (2011). Molecular biology of capsaicinoid biosynthesis in chili pepper (Capsicum spp.). Plant Cell Reports, 30, 695-706. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00299-010-0968-8
Cabrera Verdezoto, R., Morán Morán, J., Mora Velasquez, B., Molina Triviño, H., Moncayo Carreño, O., Díaz Ocampo, E., & Cabrera Verdesoto, C. (2016). Evaluación de dos insecticidas naturales y un químico en el control de plagas en el cultivo de frejol en el litoral ecuatoriano. Idesia (Arica), 34(5), 27-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-34292016005000025
Capinera, J. L. (2017). Encyclopedia of entomology. Springer.
Cárdenas-De la Peña, A., Muñoz-MadridAlba, A., Montero-Solís, F., & Hernández-Arzaba, J. (2022). Factibilidad económica de biopreparados: Una alternativa en la producción de hortalizas en Valle de Santiago, Guanajuato, México. Agro-Divulgación, 2(4), 49-51. https://agrodivulgacion-colpos.org/index.php/1agrodivulgacion1/article/view/92
Castillo-López, I., Rodríguez-Africano, P., Montes-Pérez, R., & González-Valderrama, D. (2017). Fauna silvestre que afecta los cultivos en Boyacá y control del daño a cultivos de maíz. Ciencia y Agricultura, 14(1), 75-84. https://doi.org/10.19053/01228420.v14.n1.2017.6090
Caterina, M., Schumacher, M., Tominaga, M., Rosen, T., Levine, J., & Julius, D. (1997). The capsaicin receptor: a heat-activated ion channel in the pain pathway. Nature, 389(6653), 816-824. https://www.nature.com/articles/39807
Chabaane, Y., Arce, C., Glauser, G., & Benrey, B. (2021). Altered capsaicin levels in domesticated chili pepper varieties affect the interaction between a generalist herbivore and its ectoparasitoid. Journal of Pest Science, 95, 735-747. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10340-021-01399-8
Chapman, J., Williams, T., Martínez, A., Cisneros, J., Caballero, P., Cave, R., & Goulson, D. (1999). Does cannibalism in Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) reduce the risk of Bt resistance? Journal of Economic Entomology, 92(4), 935-940. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/92.4.935
Clark, P., Molina-Ochoa, J., Martinelli, S., Skoda, S., Isenhour, D., Lee, D., Krumm, J., & Foster, J. (2007). Population variation of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, in the Western Hemisphere. Journal of Insect Science, 7(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1673/031.007.0501
Cowles, R., Keller, J., & Miller, J. (1989). Pungent spices, ground red pepper, and synthetic capsaicin as onion fly ovipositional deterrents. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 15, 719-730. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/bf01014714
Davis, F., Ng, S., & Williams, W. (1992). Visual rating scales for screening whorl-stage corn for resistance to fall armyworm. Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station. Technical Bulletin, 186, 1-9.
Du Plessis, H., Schlemmer, M., & Van den Berg, J. (2020). The effect of temperature on the development of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Insects, 11(4), 228. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects11040228
Figueroa Gualteros, A., Castro Triviño, E., & Castro Salazar, H. (2019). Efecto bioplaguicida de extractos vegetales para el control de Spodoptera frugiperda en el cultivo de maíz (Zea mays). Acta Biológica Colombiana, 24(1), 58-66. https://doi.org/10.15446/abc.v24n1.69333
Gonçalves, G., Lira, S., GlSSI, D., & Vendramim, J. (2021). Bioactivity of extracts from solanaceae against Zabrotes subfasciatus. Acta Biológica Colombiana, 26(1), 62-71. https://doi.org/10.15446/abc.v26n1.84712
Henderson, F., & Tilton, W. (1955). Tests with acaricides against the brown wheat mite 12. Journal of Economic Entomology, 48(2), 157-161. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/48.2.157
Holdridge, L. (1987). Ecología basada en zonas de vida. Agroamerica.
Hori, M., Nakamura, H., Fujii, Y., Suzuki, Y., & Matsuda, K. (2011). Chemicals affecting the feeding preference of the Solanaceae‐feeding lady beetle Henosepilachna vigintioctomaculata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Journal of Applied Entomology, 135(1‐2), 121-131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.2010.01519.x
Ileer, V., Peralta, J., Palacios, C., & Burgos, A. (2022). Bioinsecticidas elaborados con extractos botánicos utilizados contra Spodoptera spp. en el cultivo de sandía (Citrullus lanatus T.) en Los Ríos-Ecuador. Uniciencia, 36(1), 659-669. http://doi.org/10.15359/ru.36-1.42
Kim, S., Boo, K., Na, Y., & Tak, J. (2023). Screening of insecticidal activity of plant essential oils and extract-based formulations against four agricultural insect pests and their risk assessment. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 26(4), 102127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2023.102127
Lamsal, S., Sibi, S., & Yadav, S. (2020). Fall armyworm in South Asia: Threats and management. Asian Journal of Advances in Agricultural Research, 13(3), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaar/2020/v13i330106
Li, B., Yang, M., Shi, R., & Ye, M. (2019). Insecticidal activity of natural capsaicinoids against several agricultural insects. Natural Product Communications, 14(7). https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X19862695
Madhumathy, A., Aivazi, A., & Vijayan, V. (2007). Larvicidal efficacy of Capsicum annum against Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases, 44(3), 223-226. PMID: 17896626.
Meckelmann, S., Jansen, C., Riegel, D., van Zonneveld, M., Ríos, L., Peña, K., Mueller-Seitz, E., & Petz, M. (2015). Phytochemicals in native Peruvian Capsicum pubescens (Rocoto). European Food Research and Technology, 241(6), 817-825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-015-2506-y
Ministerio de Desarrollo Agrario y Riego. (2020). Anuario estadísticas de la producción agrícola y ganadera. Lima, Perú, Dirección de Estadística Agraria. http://frenteweb.minagri.gob.pe/sisca/?mod=consultacult
Miranda, A., Espejo, Y., Salas, J., Gonzales, H., Aguilera, J., & Martínez, L. (2021). Bioplaguicidas: Mecanismos de acción biocida en insectos plaga. Research, Society and Development, 10(7), e42010716893-e42010716893. https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i7.16893
Montezano, D., Sosa-Gómez, D., Specht, A., Roque-Specht, V., Sousa-Silva, J., Paula-Moraes, S., Peterson, J., & Hunt, T. (2018). Host plants of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the Americas. African Entomology, 26(2), 286-300. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-112bc26060
Negrete, F., & Morales, J. (2003). El gusano cogollero del maíz: (Spodoptera frugiperda. Smith): Manejo del gusano cogollero del maíz utilizando extractos de plantas. Corpoica. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12324/2220
Neira, M., & Pérez, E. (2020). Manejo ecológico para el control de Spodoptera frugiperda en el cultivo de maíz amarillo duro en las regiones de Lambayeque y La Libertad. Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria - INIA. https://repositorio.inia.gob.pe/handle/20.500.12955/1148
Paredes-Sánchez, F., Rivera, G., Bocanegra-García, V., Martínez-Padrón, H., Berrones-Morales, M., Niño-García, N., & Herrera-Mayorga, V. (2021). Avances en estrategias de control contra Spodoptera frugiperda. Una revisión. Moléculas, 26(18), 5587. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26185587
Rakesh, V., Patgiri, P., Borah, A., Nandhini, D., & Gogoi, I. (2024). Comparative study on the repellency and chemical profiles of different chilli peppers formulations against Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in stored wheat. Journal of Stored Products Research, 106, 102312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2024.102312
Reyes-Escogido, M., Gonzalez-Mondragon, E., & Vazquez-Tzompantzi, E. (2011). Chemical and pharmacological aspects of capsaicin. Molecules, 16(2), 1253-1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules16021253
Salgado-Aristizabal, N., Galvis-Nieto, J., Narvaez-Perez, J., Jurado-Erazo, D., Rodríguez, L., & Orrego, C. (2024). Evaluation of a sustainable production of encapsulated chili pepper powder (Capsicum pubescens) through convective and vacuum drying. Processes, 12(10), 2154. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102154
Sánchez-Alonso, I., Fonseca-González, A., Olmedo-Juárez, A., Olivares-Pérez, J., González-Cortazar, M., Monteon-Ojeda, A., & Rojas Hernández, S. (2024). Insecticidal activity of two organic extracts from Libidibia coriaria (Jacq.) Schltdl. fruits against Spodoptera frugiperda JE Smith. Natural Product Research, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2024.2368274
Santoa, L., & Santos, L. (2024). Effect of Capsicum chinense as a botanical insecticide on the mortality of Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in soybeans. Contribuciones a las Ciencias Sociales, 17(13), e13891. https://doi.org/10.55905/revconv.17n.13-370
Servicio Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología del Perú. (2024). Datos climáticos históricos de la región Huánuco 1991-2020. Plataforma de Datos Climáticos. https://www.senamhi.gob.pe
Sinha, R., Shaham, Y., & Heilig, M. (2011). Translational and reverse translational research on the role of stress in drug craving and relapse. Psychopharmacology, 218, 69-82. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-011-2263-y
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Publicado
2025-12-26
Como Citar
Herrera , H., Valverde-Rodríguez, A., Castillo , M., Barrionuevo, L., Alvarez-Benaute, L., & Campos-Albornoz, M. (2025). Capsaicina no controle de Spodoptera frugiperda em milho (Zea mays L.) var. Blanco Urubamba. Revista Da Faculdade De Agronomia Da Universidade De Zulia, 43(1), e264302. Obtido de https://produccioncientificaluz.org/index.php/agronomia/article/view/44998
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Produção Vegetal
Direitos de Autor (c) 2026 Hecar Herrera Marchino, Agustina Valverde-Rodríguez, Manuel Jorge Castillo Nole, Laura Carmen Barrionuevo Torres, Luisa Madolyn Alvarez-Benaute, Miltao Edelio Campos-Albornoz
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