Revista Venezolana de Gerencia (RVG)
Año 28 No. Especial 10, 2023, 1178-1193
julio-diciembre
ISSN 1315-9984 / e-ISSN 2477-9423
Como citar: Barrientos Báez, A., Gonzálvez Vallés, J. E., y Caldevilla-Domínguez, D. (2023). Organizational management of communication in Social Responsibility: an indicator of media literacy in managers. Revista Venezolana De Gerencia, 28(Edición Especial 10), 1178-1193. https://doi.org/10.52080/rvgluz.28.e10.19
Organizational management of communication in Social Responsibility: an indicator of media literacy in managers
Barrientos Báez, Almudena*
Gonzálvez Vallés, Juan Enrique**
Caldevilla-Domínguez, David***
Abstract
The research analyzes the interactions of users with regard to content administrated and published by Spain’s Government to promote media literacy and combat misinformation, and its implications for similar actions in the management of organizations which might be tasked with these very mission. To meet this objective, all the tweets issued by the official profile of this institution (4938) were collected and those that dealt with any of the following categories were selected: COVID-19, Restrictions, Vaccines, and Fake News. An analysis of the descriptive statistics of the possible interactions on Twitter was carried out, that is likes, comments and retweets. Similarly, an analysis of the means of the variances was carried out to observe if there were significant differences between and within the groups. The content generated is shared more because it is a public institution of reference, but to a much lesser extent in the case of fake news. Even more illuminating is the mostly negative feeling generated in the comments.
Keywords: Communication management; media literacy; fake news; public institutions; social networks.
Recibido: 15.05.23 Aceptado: 28.09.23
* This article is part of the framework of a Concilium project (931.791) of the Complutense University of Madrid, “Validation of communication models, neurocommunication, business, social networks and gender”.
** Profesora Ayudante doctora Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM). España. E-mail: almbarri@ucm.es https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9913-3353
*** Profesor Contratado Doctor Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM). España. E-mail: jegonzalvez@ucm.es https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4405-1737
**** Profesor Titular Doctor Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM). España. E-mail: davidcaldevilla@ccinf.ucm.es https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9850-1350
Gestión organizacional de la comunicación en Responsabilidad Social: indicador de la alfabetización mediática en gestores
Resumen
La investigación analiza las interacciones de los usuarios con los contenidos administrados y publicados por el Gobierno de España para promover la alfabetización mediática y combatir la desinformación, y sus implicaciones para acciones similares en la gestión de las organizaciones que puedan recibir esta misma misión. Para cumplir con este objetivo se recopilaron todos los tuits emitidos por el perfil oficial de esta institución (4938) y se seleccionaron aquellos que trataban sobre alguna de las siguientes categorías: COVID-19, Restricciones, Vacunas y Fake News. Se realizó un análisis de las estadísticas descriptivas de las posibles interacciones en Twitter, es decir, likes, comentarios y retuits. Asimismo, se realizó un análisis de medias de las varianzas para observar si existían diferencias significativas entre y dentro de los grupos. El contenido generado se comparte más por tratarse de una institución pública de referencia, pero en mucha menor medida en el caso de las fake news. Aún más esclarecedor es el sentimiento mayoritariamente negativo generado en los comentarios.
Palabras clave: Administración de la Comunicación; alfabetización mediática; bulos; instituciones públicas; redes sociales.
1. Introduction
We live in the age of information overabundance and misinformation, a term recommended by the European Commission. There are multiple discussion forums and from various spheres it is requested that citizens have training for their media literacy (European Audiovisual Observatory, 2016). However, no efforts are made to establish meaningful relationships with the media (Jenkins, 2006). In this sense, various authors have raised the question of how citizens can obtain the required information, redefining the concept of public opinion that we have used for more than a century (Caldevilla-Domínguez y Xifra, 2013; Rey et al, 2017 & Caldevilla-Domínguez et al, 2020; Almeida, 2020).
Lippman uses the term pseudo-environment to explain the reality established by citizens from the information provided by the media. But it is still surprising to note that, even in this context, ordinary citizens continue to claim that they are overwhelmed by the ever- growing stream of information (2003). Today, we navigate the digital world to obtain information from multiple sources and at different times (Kovach y Rosenstiel, 2016). The aspect of mediation has changed. In addition, the excess of available information makes us ill-judge it. When the number of media was more limited, the selection process of how we informed ourselves was developed in part by the gatekeeping journalists without the tyranny of the likes.
And today with infinite sources available we scan quickly before deciding what to read, instead of analyzing what would best serve us. With fewer options, people were able to better select what they consumed (Panek, 2016). In just a few years, we have gone from a lack of information to managing a huge amount of data. We need tools to help us choose the information. Other authors have pointed out the need to specifically care for Media and information literacy among mainly the executive cadres of organizations and academic institutions (Holguín-Álvarez et al, 2021). While Escobar Ortiz (2021) has raised the question on how to measure the handling of technology by society and, thus, in the organizations that form it.
The research analyzes the interactions of users with regard to content administrated and published by Spain’s Government to promote media literacy and combat misinformation, and its implications for similar actions in the management of organizations which might be tasked with these very mission.
2. Media literacy and Organizational Management
Media literacy and organizational management may initially appear to occupy distinct domains; however, a closer examination reveals a nexus of interconnectedness. As we progress further into the digital age, understanding media literacy becomes vital to effective organizational management, a notion proposed by Hobbs (2010).
Media literacy refers to the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in a variety of forms. In the context of organizational management, it involves understanding how information is communicated and perceived through various media channels and using this knowledge to effectively manage and lead an organization (Schwalbe, 2015).
Organizational management, on the other hand, is the coordination and administration of tasks to achieve an organization’s goals. It requires strategic planning, efficient resource allocation, and effective leadership. The evolution of digital media and communication technologies has drastically altered the landscape in which organizational management operates, making media literacy a fundamental skill for modern managers. In the era of information overload, managers must be media literate to effectively navigate the digital landscape. They must be able to discern reliable information sources, understand how media messages are constructed and for what purpose, and interpret these messages accurately. This is crucial in strategic decision-making processes, where data-driven decisions hinge on the quality and reliability of information obtained (Schwalbe, 2015).
Media literacy also plays a significant role in internal communication and fostering a positive organizational culture. An understanding of media allows managers to choose the most appropriate communication channels and craft messages in a way that is accessible and engaging for the team. As remote work and digital communication become increasingly prevalent, particularly in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, managers’ ability to utilize digital media effectively is crucial in maintaining team cohesion and morale (Chaffey & Smith, 2017). From a marketing and public relations perspective, media literacy aids in managing an organization’s brand and reputation. It helps managers understand how their organization is portrayed in the media, how to respond to negative press, and how to leverage media to communicate their organization’s mission, values, and successes to the public (Chaffey & Smith, 2017).
Furthermore, the rise of social media has amplified the voices of consumers and the broader public. Stakeholder engagement has thus become an increasingly important facet of organizational management. Managers who are media literate can effectively use social media to engage stakeholders, manage customer relations, and gain valuable market insights. Lastly, media literacy contributes to risk management. Cybersecurity threats, misinformation, and reputational damage from negative media coverage are serious risks in the digital age. By understanding media and how information is disseminated, managers can anticipate potential issues, mitigate risks, and implement effective crisis management strategies (Winkler, 2020).
3. Media literacy in social networks
The digitization of information and the convergence of this phenomenon, with that of its distribution in the network have brought with it a new era of human development of historical dimensions, but also a clear need to build literacy processes that limit or filter disinformative elements (Abuin, 2014). These changes imply modifications in the communication mode of all individuals, both at a personal, corporate, and institutional level (Vianna y Carvalho-Mendonça, 2021). Web 2.0 and social networks have changed the relationships between individuals and organizations, whether they happen between companies and consumers or between citizens and organizations, institutions, and the third sector.
Large advertisers are betting on social media and the success of their strategies lies in the offer of value/added services and exclusive promotions for the users of their microsites (McIntyre, 2019). At the institutional level, it is essential to communicate and explain the actions to reach society, managing the media effectively against fake news (Jones-Jang et al, 2021). For their part, citizens can thus see their doubts about a digitally mediated society clarified (Barrientos-Báez et al, 2018).
González & López-Cruz (2022) see Social Networks and the literation in their use as an unavoidable step in digital transformation: unavoidable in the meaning that organizations will first be slowly filled up with digitally literate personell -either self-trained or empowered by school programs as Severino-González et al, (2022) suggests- and then have even their aging executive cadres forced to at least understand digital literacy. Social networks not only eliminate this professionalization, but also add a series of characteristics in the communication that directly affect it and the message (Carrera, 2018; Díaz-Campo y Fernández-Gómez, 2019; Aladro Vico, 2020;). Post-truth implies that honesty and veracity of information is at risk. Participants in communication process mislead audiences of all ages by spreading inaccurate or fabricated content (Ferreira Dos Santos et al, 2019). The sum of all this, carries implications in the institutions- citizens relationship that directly affect society (Catalán-Matamoros y Elías, 2020).
4. Social networks and literacy skills
If we return to the influence of Web 2.0, we have to focus on what its appearance has meant from the user’s PoW and how it has translated to the Internet. From a technological and programming PoW, it has not meant a substantial change, but now new relational frameworks have emerged with the subject on the other side of the screen (Casero-Ripollés, 2018). In addition, we are talking about new query formats since devices have multiplied and the access to the network of networks has been facilitated, although there are always exceptions linked, almost always, to the different existing political solutions (Ruiz, 2020).
Internet ceased to be one way to give prominence to the user, who now interacts effectively with what is attractive: new channels for participation and a portable multiplatform have been established from which you can participate anytime and anywhere (Buendía et al, 1998). The user is now a crossumer, a citizen who consumes, produces, and disseminates information, co-creating a discourse with as much credibility —for other crossumer— as the institution’s (De Abreu, 2011).
In such a way, that the source of communication is no longer essential, since there are other sources, and the citizen can receive them as sources of dis-information (Serrano et al, 2019). First, access to this type of content is short and uninterrupted and occurs anytime, anywhere (Buendía et al, 1998). A second information consumption practice native of digital environment is the perception that information is on the networks and must be consumed independently of its reliability (Abascal y Esteban, 2005).
In the same manner, as proposed by Zaggi et al (2023), the use of digital means and digitally literate people will inevitably slide towards an increasingly spread “crowdsourcing” for problem solving and strategy outline in companies and organizations. Giving everyone a stake in the group’s capability to innovate and overcome a business environment taking advantage on those same technologies and capabilities to be even faster and more difficult to grasp in its twists and development.
We propose the evolution of conflicts as an example of a palm tree (Pérez-Dasilva et al, 2020), since these are agitated, encouraged, developed, and solved through the use of networks, speaking of electronic informational wars that can be measured thanks to the availability of increasingly simple and intuitive software the public has at their disposal. The social network chosen for our research was Twitter as it has a great innovation, and its correct use will serve for the documentation of news and the correct generation and acquisition of information (Rusbridger, 2010).
5. Media literacy in the Spanish public institutions during COVID-19
Public institutions have been pushed to the extreme during the pandemic. The so-called institutional turbulence has been combated with the creation of expert cabinets where there are no longer only bureaucrats but professionals in crisis management (Roberts y Dowling, 2020; Mut y Rueda, 2021).
The context generated by the pandemic represents a magnificent opportunity for the creation of Fake News, either with political or egotistical intentions (Catalán-Matamoros y Elías, 2020). Other public institutions did take the reins of digital literacy and carried out actions: like the National Police, which designed a guide against misinformation. From the private sphere, news verification companies played a leading role, especially from the sphere of social networks (Bashkara y Bawa, 2021; Herrero y Herrera, 2021). In fact, there are studies relevant to social networks (Li et al, 2020), communication (Milenkova y Lendzhova, 2021; Moreno-Castro et al, 2022) and the pandemic crisis. Those studies regard to narratives around the pandemic crisis through social networks (Buendía et al, 1998; Serrano et al, 2019). As can be seen too in Liu & Shahab (2021). For all the above, the research establishes the general objective of evaluating the interactions of users with respect to the publications promoted by the Government of Spain to promote media literacy and combat misinformation.
The proposed objective is intended to answer the following research questions (RQ):
- RQ 1: What kind of content generated by the Government of Spain on Twitter about aspects of the coronavirus pandemic is more shared?
- RQ 2: Which kind of feeling, positive or negative, does the content generated by the Government of Spain on Twitter about aspects of the coronavirus pandemic generate in the comments of their publications?
- RQ 3: Does the content generated by the Government of Spain on Twitter about aspects of the coronavirus pandemic generate emotions in users?
6. Methodology
Descriptive research was carried out with a quantitative methodology focused on the evaluation of the impact and that sheds light on both the descriptive part and the relationship between the variables after the collection and management of the information (Abascal y Esteban, 2005). This analysis facilitates the identification of the most effective content on social networks, as well as their own identification through the presence of certain terms and hashtags. In the interaction part, we can point out the activity of the followers and the conversation generated by them with the institutional profiles (Sánchez, 1999). Subsequently, a study of the relationships between the variables was carried out. The analysis of the means of the variances made it possible to verify the research questions established after being processed with the IBM SPSS computer program and the tool for the analysis of sentiment on Twitter, Python, and its analysis using machine learning algorithms. As a first step, primary data was collected from the Twitter profile of the Government of Spain (@desdelamoncloa) using Metricool tool from the beginning of the first state of alarm in Spain on March 14, 2020, and until the end of the second situation of this type that occurred on May 9, 2021, accumulating a total of 4938 tweets.
As a second step, four discriminating categories were established between them in order to avoid duplication of content, and that in total they collected 1659 tweets: Re-strictions, Vaccines, Fake News and COVID-19. Tweets must have that specific word, and, in case of duplication, we studied it and choose right category. The latter grouped all the publications that were related to the pandemic but were not related to the other three categories. As a third step, interactions received by these tweets from the users and the responses from the institutional profile, if any, were measured. The analysis of the variances allowed to establish if there were significant differences between and within the groups (Cordos et al, 2017).
7. Organizational management of communication in Social Responsibility: Results
The analysis of results links the variables that articulated the research questions with everything related to media literacy developed by the Government of Spain in the period of the coronavirus pandemic through its profile on Twitter. In relation to RQ1, we can classify the action of sharing as the one that generates the most engagement, since the user brings the content of another user to their timeline, in this case, that of the Government of Spain. This encourages the potential for content viralization to grow exponentially (Capello, 2017; Bazaco et al, 2019).
In the Table 1 shows that a total of 847 tweets were published with aspects related to COVID-19 by the Government of Spain, the average being 86.71, with a minimum of 11 and a maximum of 1030 times when content was shared through a retweet.
On the other hand, the Restrictions category accumulates 201 publications, with an average share of 108.76, a minimum of 11, and a maximum of 1,250, which indicates the concentration on a single tweet or a few of many retweets. However, the Fake News category, although it accumulates 387 tweets, receives an average of 54.08, with a minimum of 3 and a maximum of 736. Furthermore, the standard deviation is 71.807, which is not excessively high for the developed sample, unusual fact in the behavior of the user of social networks, especially on Twitter.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics on RQ1
Source: Own elaboration
With a trust level of 95%, the statistical value F showed that there are significant differences between the mean of the user who shares the publications and the different categories established for the tweets, with F the same to 13,803 and a following. 0.000 <0.05 with which the first research question (RQ1) was answered positively in the Restrictions category, but negatively in terms of Fake News. The high averages of the Restrictions and COVID-19 categories, above 80 mentions, drive the dissemination of Spanish government communications.
However, the Fake News category is far below in terms of the times content is shared, thus its diffusion it’s much less (Table 2). After the study on the variables that referred to RQ1, all those that alluded to RQ2 were analyzed, that is, the effects, positive or negative, that the content generated by the Government of Spain on Twitter on aspects of the pandemic of the coronavirus generates. Institutional profiles are distinguished because they do not usually generate conversations on social networks, but users do value established communication.
Table 2
Statistics of the analysis of the means of the variances for RQ1
Source: Own elaboration
The third table shows very clear differences between the values accumulated by positive and negative comments. The former has low values and reach 3 in the means of the COVID-19 and Restrictions categories. The best value is obtained by Vaccines and Fake News, with 1 tenth of a difference in three of both, but they do not even reach 3 tenths of a difference of oscillation with respect to the other two values. Negative comments, however, reach very high values. All are above 70 and in the case of Vaccines and Fake News they are above 80 (81.29 and 80.88, respectively (table 3).
Table 3
Descriptive statistics on RQ1
Source: Own elaboration
In the Table 4 shows the analysis of the 95% Trust interval for the mean and makes it clear that there are no significant differences in the mean of the users’ comments and the different categories established in the tweets of the Government of Spain. The F value is 1.001 in all three cases with a sig. 0.391> 0.05 with which the second research question (RQ2) is answered negatively.
Table 4
Statistics of the analysis of the means of the variances for RQ2
Source: Own elaboration
The explanation can be found in that the way users interact through comments is very similar in all categories. The difference in positive comments does not reach 3 tenths (0.27); while in the neutral comments it stands at little more than 1 basic point (1.35); and in the positive comments it oscillates a little more, reaching just over 7 basic points (7.02), However, a significant variation can be observed between the total mean of positive comments and negative comments (73.93), which come to provide a clear result on why the @desdelamoncloa tweets generate a clear negative sentiment.
The last step of this part of the investigation established some last relationships between those variables that had to do with RQ3, that is, the relationship between the content generated by the Government of Spain on Twitter on aspects of the coronavirus pandemic and emotions in users.
This variable was measured through the number of likes received for each tweet and grouped into the previously used categories. The result shows on this occasion that the Vaccines category is the one that generates the most emotions, with an average of 147.68 out of a total of 223 tweets published.
Below is the content on the Restrictions with an average only a little more than 2 points lower (-2.03) for a total of 145.65. The Vaccines category reappears when it comes to recovering the maximum value of likes received by a tweet (2778) and very close is the COVID-19 category (2773) that, even having 624 more contents, only remains in second place. However, some of its tweets did not receive any likes and therefore set it is minimum to zero. It can be seen that the standard deviation is once again very high since the generation of emotions among Twitter users gathers different sensitivities (table 5).
Table 5
Descriptive statistics on RQ3
Source: Own elaboration
The sixth table contains the analysis of the means of the variances with a trust level of 95%, establishing statistically significant differences between the mean of the users’ emotions expressed through the like and the different categories established for the generated tweets by @desdelamoncloa in the period of pandemic due to the coronavirus. The value of F (12.129) attached to a sig. 0.000 <0.05 make it clear that the answer to the third research question (RQ3) is positive and that the content produced generates emotions in users.
Table 6
Statistics of the analysis of the means of the variances for RQ3
Source: Own elaboration
The explanation for this result may lie in the fact of the simplicity when executing this interaction, which makes the absolute values, reached around 3000 likes in some cases. It is evident that the content about vaccines is the one that generates the greatest emotions, since it accumulates the highest average of all the categories (147.68), the highest value in the maximum digit of likes (2778) and even the highest in the minimum value of likes in a tweet (20), It is once again surprising that the publications about Fake News are those with the lowest average (74.38), being the only category that is below 100 basis points.
The world of social networks brings with it a volume of information so vast that it generates such an adverse effect as disinformation. It is difficult to unravel the reliable content of the content of low or no level, which is why public institutions must create protection mechanisms to avoid these risks (Abuin, 2014; Pérez, 2003). Public institutions must work in a coordinated way on media, digital and information literacy, providing users with the necessary tools to distinguish between the content received through social profiles (Jaraba, 2015; Livingstone, 2020).
The research carried out relates the communication of the Government of Spain on Twitter during the period of the coronavirus pandemic and what is the degree of interaction that it generates between Twitter users. This main objective highlights the potential of social networks for the transmission and viralization of content with its ability to help digital literacy (Abascal y Estebam, 2005). When approaching this research from a public institution, the perspective is twofold, since it generates official content and contributes to the fight against hoaxes and information overabundance (Pozzi et al, 2016).
Given the capabilities of Web 2.0 in terms of feedback and participation, the field of interactions is fertile ground in which to measure the relationship between Twitter users and the sender’s profile (Serrano et al, 2019). A purely quantitative analysis is useful and provides one of the possible views on the content generated, but the distinction between the various emotions generates a qualitative approach that complements the previous one and allows value to be given to the interaction (de Vicente et al, 2021).
7.1. Implications
Previous research has already warned about the role of public institutions in digital literacy through the use of their profiles on social networks, especially on Twitter (Lee, 2018). The capacity of public institutions to provide their audiences with tools to distinguish trustworthy content from those are not trustworthy in areas such as education (Nazarweisi et al, 2020; Kogan et al, 2019) or sports (Barquero et al, 2018), the financial world (García et al, 2021) or in hospital communication (Nguyen, 2021).
However, there is no doubt that interactions and emotions are generated between the recipients of the publications and the content should be consistent with the policies and lines of action of these governmental instances. Governance and its good practices, therefore, also extend to the digital and social world. Considering that many of the public institutions use social networks for exclusively political and propaganda purposes, the legislation must be adapted so that the different levels of the Administration assume their task of media, digital and information literacy. In the same way, European regulations must homogenize national legislation to undertake a single course that also saves any type of technological conditioning in this task where the networks are always one step ahead. Similarly, private organizations can note the fact that “Social network communication” means more than publicity and marketing: but actual generation of feedback between an organization and its public (Chaundry et al, 2021).
8. Conclusions
Regarding the first research question, the results show statistically significant differences in the degree of interaction through the action of sharing. Considering that it is the action that requires a greater degree of engagement from the user with respect to the profile, the contents referring to the Restrictions imposed after the emergence of the pandemic receive a greater degree of commitment. In fact, the average is above 100 points, while content about Fake News is shared on average just over 54 times.
Regarding the comments of the followers, within the second research question, the profile of the Government of Spain on Twitter receives mostly negative comments, with marginal ammounts of neutral or positive ones. Users do not share/believe the tweets generated by the public institution’s profile, although they do generate a high volume of participation. There is no conversation, but users take advantage of this possibility to express their opinions. In this sense, the work of the Government in terms of digital literacy and the fight against Fake News in this special period is widely criticized. The results of the third research question allow us to conclude that the contents receive a large number of likes, reaching more than the sum of the shared contents and the comments. It is especially relevant in the Vaccines and Restrictions categories, which contents are positively received by users.
Relating the conclusions found, we can establish that, although the comments are mostly negative, the number of likes and retweets received in almost all categories is high. It is not a contradiction, but rather reflects the different degree of commitment developed by users: supporters of this type of publication are willing to spend less time making their support explicit. On the other hand, naysayers don’t mind trying harder to make their discontent apparent. Criticism is the challenge that public institutions have to face during pandemic crisis on the way to promote literacy through these channels and especially against Fake News. However, the @desdelamoncloa profile has its weakest point in this area where negative comments carry more weight than likes and shared content.
Private and public organizations share the digital workspace for communication with the general public, and lessons can be extracted from both sides of the trench in order to gain a future advantage. Which in terms of digital communication means promoting the entry of new blood in organizational cadres, as well as the implementation of parallel, crowd form of internal relationship aimed at spreading their digital literacy capabilities quickly and deeply among the executives and employees. Aiming at a global capacity to not only communicate, but also understand their own communicative worth for the organization in social networks.
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