Revista
de Ciencias Sociales (RCS)
Vol. XXX, Número Especial 10,
julio/diciembre 2024. pp. 25-38
FCES
- LUZ ● ISSN: 1315-9518 ● ISSN-E: 2477-9431
Como citar: Lara-Paredes, S. J., Alcívar-Junco, G.
D. C., y Pérez-Cepeda, M. (2024). Youth criminal intentions under the scope of the theory of planned
behavior. Revista
De Ciencias Sociales, XXX(Número Especial 10), 25-38.
Youth criminal intentions under the scope of the
theory of planned behavior
Lara-Paredes, Selena Jouly*
Alcívar-Junco, Genesis
del Carmen**
Pérez-Cepeda, Maximiliano***
Abstract
Using the Theory of
Planned Behavior, this research aimed to analyze the effect of attitudes, the
social environment and perceived control over the law, to understand criminal
intentions of young people in Ecuador, a country that has experienced a
significant increase in crime. juvenile delinquency in recent years. 202
students between 14 and 17 years old from five public schools in Ecuador
participated in the non-experimental cross-sectional study. The results of the
Structural Equations Model show a negative relationship between Attitude and
intention (-0.367; p<001), and positive relationships between Subjective
Norm and intention (0.333; p<001), and Perceived Control and intention to not
commit illegal acts (0.204; p<001). It is concluded that the Theory of
Planned Behavior is an adequate framework to understand the effect that
individual attitudes, the social environment and the control they perceive over
the law have on the intention not to commit illegal acts. The most notable
contribution of this research is the inverse relationship between attitude and
intention, which raises important questions about the perception of severity
that young people have about the law and their intention not to contravene it.
Keywords:
Youth criminal intentions; theory of planned behavior; youth’s attitude;
subjective norm; perceived control.
Intenciones
delictivas de los jóvenes a través de la teoría del comportamiento planificado
Resumen
Utilizando la Teoría
del Comportamiento Planificado, esta investigación tuvo como propósito analizar
el efecto de las actitudes, el entorno social y el control percibido sobre la
ley, para entender intenciones delictivas de los jóvenes en Ecuador, un país
que ha experimentado un aumento significativo de la delincuencia juvenil en los
últimos años. En el estudio no experimental de corte transversal participaron
202 estudiantes de entre 14 y 17 años de cinco escuelas públicas de Ecuador.
Los resultados del Modelo de Ecuaciones Estructurales muestran una relación
negativa entre Actitud e intención (-0,367; p<001), y relaciones positivas
entre la Norma Subjetiva y la intención (0,333; p<001), y el Control
Percibido y la intención de no cometer actos ilícitos (0,204; p<001). Se concluye
que la Teoría del Comportamiento Planificado, es un marco adecuado para
entender el efecto que las actitudes individuales, el entorno social y el
control que perciben sobre la ley, tienen en la intención de no cometer actos
ilícitos. La aportación más notable de esta investigación es la relación
inversa entre la actitud e intención, lo cual plantea cuestiones importantes
sobre la percepción de severidad que tienen los jóvenes sobre la ley y su
intención de no transgredirla.
Palabras clave: Intenciones
criminales juveniles; teoría de la conducta planificada; actitud juvenil; norma
subjetiva; control percibido.
Introduction
In many
countries in the developed world, the number of arrests of youth for violent
crimes, such as murder, robbery, and aggravated assault, has shown a steady
decline since the mid-2000s. In the United States, for example, in 2020, these
arrests related to youth for violent crimes reached a historic low, falling to
78% below the peak recorded in 1994 and halving the figures from a decade
earlier (Puzzanchera, 2022).
In the
youth justice system in England and Wales (Youth
Justice Board, 2023), for the year ending March 2022, a total of 13,800
children aged 10 to 17 were cautioned or sentenced, reflecting a 13% decrease
over the year. last year and a significant decrease of 79% over the past
decade. In Europe, the state of juvenile incarceration varies between
countries. For example, while Germany has a relatively high percentage of
juvenile prisoners: 10% of the total prison population; Denmark has a remarkably
low figure: Only 0.1%.
These
disparities could be influenced by a variety of factors, including differences
in legal systems, social norms, and approaches to justice and youth rehabilitation
(Aebi et al., 2022). In Spain, the Ministerio
del Interior indicated that during the first half of 2021 there were 117
arrests linked to these violent youth groups (Europapress,
2021). These trends indicate a changing dynamic of youth participation in the
criminal justice system, with a notable shift toward reduced participation over
the years.
Nevertheless,
Latin America has some of the highest crime and violence rates in the world,
with 37% of all homicides occurring in the region, of which, more than 60% are
young people and are largely attributable to violence. of gangs (Campie, 2023). In Ecuador, juvenile delinquency increases
continuously. In the first two and a half months of 2023, there have already
been 500 minors arrested for various crimes, including robberies, assaults,
murders, kidnappings and more.
It is
evident that while the United States, the United Kingdom and the European Union
have experienced a decrease in youth crime rates, Latin America, and
particularly Ecuador, has witnessed a worrying increase in youth criminal activity.
These opposing trends underscore the importance of understanding the underlying
factors contributing to this divergence. Socioeconomic conditions, access to
education, family structures and the influence of criminal organizations are
critical elements to consider.
Furthermore,
it is essential to recognize the role of legal frameworks and their application
in shaping these youth crime trends (McAra &
McVie, 2018). Differences in laws, judicial procedures, and sentencing policies
between Western Nations and Latin American countries can significantly affect
the way juveniles are processed within the justice system (Sozzo,
2022). In some cases, leniency or more rehabilitative approaches may have
contributed to reductions in youth crime in certain regions (Applegate, Bolin & Ouellette, 2023).
Conversely,
the lack of effective legal mechanisms and stricter penalties in other areas
could be related to the emergence of juvenile delinquency (Zane & Mears,
2023). The propensity of young people to engage in criminal activities is
influenced by multiple factors, such as the influence of the family and social
environment, where children who grow up in dysfunctional homes are at greater
risk of crime (Palit & Saragani,
2022). This also includes their perceived control over avoiding punishment for
crimes committed and their individual attitude towards crime (Applegate et al.,
2023).
Morillo & Birkbeck (2017); and Torres-Tellez & Montero (2022), point out that once an
adolescent becomes an adult, these behaviors may likely disappear. However,
they could also mark the beginning of a criminal career. Additionally, they
identify two approaches to addressing multiple theories simultaneously: The
first aims for conceptual integration, while the second focuses on comparing the
predictive effectiveness of key variables derived from competing theories that
seek to provide a reasonably complete explanation of criminal behavior.
Considering these arguments, this study seeks to carry out an
analysis of the intentionality of young people to commit crimes, using the
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), as an integrative framework to evaluate the
attitude of young people towards transgressing the law, influence of the
environment and the control they perceive over the law when committing illegal
acts.
1.
Theoretical foundation
1.1.
Youth respect for the law
Positive
role models, such as parents, teachers, and community leaders, play a critical
role in shaping a young person's attitude toward the law by demonstrating the
importance of following the rules and offering guidance and support (Kearney
& Levine, 2020). Moreover, a sense of justice in the legal system, where
laws are applied uniformly regardless of background or social status, fosters
respect (Oriolo, 2023).
Another
important factor is education. As Dong & Zeb (2022) highlight, education is
another vital tool to promote law-abiding behavior among young people. Without
proper direction and guidance, it is common for adolescents to develop deviant
behaviors, noncompliance with the law, and unhealthy beliefs. In a different
context, Yusuf (2023) revealed that a number of structural challenges pose
significant threats to both law enforcement and social stability. These
challenges encompass a widespread lack of trust in the judicial system and law
enforcement, the widespread availability of weapons, and the collapse of family
institutions.
Active
community involvement, such as volunteering and participating in community
events, also helps young people respect the law, as they feel responsible to
their community and understand that laws maintain a safe and healthy
environment (McMellon & Tisdall,
2020). Lastly, enforcing laws with appropriate consequences for illegal
behavior reinforces the idea that there are real repercussions for breaking the
law, thus motivating youth to comply with rules and regulations to avoid these
consequences (Nagin & Telep, 2020).
Altman
(2021), stated that according to consequentialism, punishment is justified when
it maximizes positive results; while according to retributive justice,
criminals must be punished because they deserve it. In either approach, the
legitimacy of punitive measures and legal sanctions, as defined by legislative
bodies, is based on their assessment of costs and benefits, particularly in relation
to their effectiveness in deterring crime and facilitating rehabilitation.
Reflecting
on the factors that influence young people's respect for the law, it is
important to highlight its multifaceted characteristic, mainly influenced by
the environment. The role of positive models in the formation of respectful
attitudes is highlighted. Parents, teachers, and community leaders not only
transmit knowledge, but also shape behaviors through their example. This
approach highlights the importance of coherence between what is taught and what
is practiced in society.
Education
is another fundamental factor in promoting respect for the law. This suggests
that the educational system has a responsibility that goes beyond the mere
transmission of academic knowledge, also encompassing the ethical and civic
training of young people. Finally, structural challenges that threaten law
enforcement and social stability are highlighted. The lack of trust in the
judicial system and law enforcement highlights the need to strengthen judicial
bodies.
1.2.
Theory of Planned Behavior
Researchers
use this theory to better understand why people make the decisions they do and
to design interventions and strategies to change behavior (Hamid, Azhar & Sujood, 2023). The Theory of
Planned Behavior (TPB) states that behavioral intentions, which serve as
precursors to actual behavior, are determined by three fundamental constructs:
Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (Albayati, Alistarbadi & Rho, 2023).
Attitude
toward Behavior focuses on an individual's general evaluation of a particular
behavior. Consider whether the person has a positive or negative attitude
toward performing the behavior (Lam,
Schoonderwoerd & Kop, 2023). Attitudes are determined by the perceived
consequences and outcomes associated with the action (Fiegel
& Frank, 2023). For example, if someone believes that quitting smoking will
improve her health (a positive outcome), her attitude toward quitting smoking
will be more favorable (Adams, Gringart &
Strobel, 2022).
Subjective
Norms analyze how social influences affect an individual's behavioral
intentions. It contemplates the expectations and perceptions attributed to
significant people in the environment, such as family, friends or colleagues (Gansser & Reich, 2023). When someone believes that her
social circle supports a specific action, the likelihood that this will
influence her intention to carry it out increases. Understanding how an
individual perceives the social environment and the people around them can
provide valuable information about their behavioral intentions (Khaleghi et
al., 2023).
The
third construct, Perceived Behavioral Control, analyzes a person's evaluation
of their ability to successfully execute a specific behavior (Hagger et al.,
2022). This concept refers to the individual assessment of the skills and
resources necessary to carry out a specific action, including criminal behavior
(Shukri, Jones & Conner, 2022). A high level of
PBC indicates that the subject is confident that he or she has the skills and
means required to carry out the behavior in question.
On
reflection, the TPB recognizes that human behavior is not simply the result of
isolated individual decisions, but is deeply rooted in a complex web of
personal and social factors. The strength of the TPB lies in its ability to
capture the dynamic interaction between its three components. It recognizes
that behavior is not the result of a single factor, but of the complex
interaction between personal attitudes, social influences, and perceptions of
control.
However,
it is also important to recognize the potential limitations of the theory. For
example, it may not fully capture the influence of emotional or irrational
factors on human behavior, or it may underestimate the role of broader
contextual factors. Despite this, it is worth reflecting that the Theory of
Planned Behavior offers a valuable framework to understand the complexity of
human behavior. Provides an organized structure for analyzing the multiple
influences on decisions and actions, including criminal intent.
1.3.
Literature gap
The
literature has shown insights into criminal intent under the scope of the TPB;
for example, Shukri et al. (2022); and Tan et al. (2022), applied the TPB to
analyze intentions to avoid traffic violations. In a different context, Kaulu (2022); as well as Bani-Khalid,
Alshira’h & Alshirah (2022), used TPB to predict tax evasion
intention (IET). In another study, Ramadhani & Trisnaningsih (2023), used the TPB to describe an intention
to commit fraud (cheating). Furthermore, Huang & Chen (2023) used the TPB
to investigate the association between criminal intent and actual criminal
behavior, as well as the factors that contribute to these behaviors.
In
terms of lawbreaking, Popa, Niță & Hălălișan
(2019) analyzed the intention to participate in forest law enforcement
efforts by applying the concepts of TPB. Finally, in a more specific context,
related to youth behavior, Alimoradi et al. (2022)
evaluated the ability of an extended theory TPB model to predict adolescent
physical and verbal aggression behavior.
The
main contribution of this research to the TPB literature focusses on the context
of a country of increasing violence, which is an inverse trend to most
countries in the developed world. The hypotheses raised in this study are
derived directly from the three fundamental constructs of the TPB. Each of
these hypotheses seeks to establish a predictive relationship between these
theoretical components and young people's intentions to respect or break the
law.
Within
the framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), attitudes are defined as
individual evaluations, whether positive or negative, towards the execution of
a specific behavior. Nagin & Telep (2020) argue
that citizens' willingness to abide by the law contributes significantly to the
decrease in crime rates. Applying this concept to the area of youth criminal
intentions, Huang & Chen (2023) argue that those young people who maintain
a favorable stance towards legal compliance are more likely to respect the
rules and avoid illicit behavior. Therefore, the following hypothesis is
proposed:
H1: An attitude of respect towards the severity of the law
will have an effect on young people's intentions not to break the law.
In the
case of minors, the subjective norm could involve their peers, family members,
community members and even educational institutions. In this sense, Khaleghi et
al. (2023) analyzed the effect of educational intervention based on the theory
of planned behavior on preventive behaviors of aggression in students. For many
juvenile offenders, peer influence plays an important role in their criminal
activities (Mattheis, 2022).
Furthermore,
Palit & Sarangi (2022) emphasize between family
violence and the crime rate among adolescents, as part of a subjective norm.
The subjective norms component of TPB allows researchers to explore how
pressure and expectations from friends impact their decisions to commit crimes
(Alimoradi et al., 2022). Therefore, the following
hypothesis arises from such reasoning:
H2: The subjective norm of respect for the law will have
an effect on young people's intentions not to transgress the law.
Perceived
control is related to the perception of one's own ability to successfully
execute a behavior. In the case of juvenile offenders, it could be their
assessment of the ease or difficulty of getting involved in criminal activities
(Popa et al., 2019). De Buck & Pauwels (2023), highlights that perceived control
takes into account factors such as self-efficacy and the presence of barriers
or facilitators that can affect the individual's confidence to carry out the
action, which includes intentions to break the law. Therefore, the following
hypothesis is proposed:
H3: A high perceived control over the law when committing
crimes will have an impact on the intention to commit crimes among young people.
2. Methodology
The
research adopted a non-experimental cross-sectional design, which aligns with
the purpose of the research. According to Hernández, Fernández & Baptista
(2014), this design is particularly appropriate when seeking to analyze the relationship
between variables at a specific time, without deliberate manipulation of them.
In this research, this design allows for the examination of young people's
attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control toward law
enforcement in their natural context (Ajzen, 2011). The use of a standardized
instrument enables comparability of results with previous and future studies in
the field.
Data
analysis was performed using a structural equation model (SEM). This analytical
technique, as Kline (2023) explains, is especially useful for examining complex
relationships between latent and observed variables, allowing for a
simultaneous evaluation of multiple pathways of influence. In the context of
this research, SEM provides a robust tool to assess how components of the TPB
interact to influence youth's intentions to comply with the law (Canatay et al., 2022).
2.1. Participants
This
study involved 202 students aged 14 to 17 years from five public educational
institutions. Before collecting the data, authorization was requested from the
directors of around 20 public schools in Ecuador, of which five agreed to
participate. To increase the participation of young students, teachers were
asked to be part of the research as moderators of the questionnaire. However,
considering that students had the option of not participating, many of them
rejected the questionnaire. Each high school has an average of 120 students, of
which around 40 students responded to the questionnaire, representing an
average participation rate of 30%.
2.2. Design and development of questionnaires
Initially,
a pilot questionnaire with five questions for each construct, measured using a
seven-point Likert scale, was sent to the students. Missing data were
identified in the pilot survey because many participants left questions
unanswered; to solve the problem, the questionnaire was redesigned, simplifying
each construct to a single question. To better address the questions, validity
was achieved through consultation with a group of three attorneys, a
psychologist with expertise in child and youth psychology, and an external
consulting researcher with experience in the TPB model. The four behavior
statements are detailed in Table 1.
Table
1
Representative
questions of the TPB model applied in the survey
|
Item description |
Likert scale |
||||||
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
|
|
Regarding the laws that punish the commission of
crimes in Ecuador, is your opinion that these are laws? |
Extremely Flexible |
Very flexible |
Flexible |
Mild |
Severe |
Very Severe |
Extremely
severe |
|
Would you say that the majority of people you
know, such as friends or family, think that the laws that punish the
commission of crimes in Ecuador are? |
Extremely Flexible |
Very flexible |
Flexible |
Mild |
Severe |
Very Severe |
Extremely
severe |
|
How controllable would it be for you to use the
laws in your favor to avoid being convicted of committing a crime in Ecuador? |
Extremely
controllable |
Very Controllable |
Controllable |
Mild |
Uncontrollable |
Very Uncontrollable |
Extremely uncontrollable |
|
I intend NOT to break any laws in the future. |
Extremely disagree |
Strongly
disagree |
Disagree |
Neutral |
Agree |
Strongly
agree |
Extremely
agree |
Source: Own elaboration, 2024.
2.3. Data collection procedure
After
review, the updated questionnaire was distributed and administered. Teachers at
the participating institutions delivered the forms to their students as an
optional activity within the social sciences course. The instructions ensured
anonymity of responses to encourage honesty, resulting in a 100% response rate
on all four questions during the second test.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. TPB path analysis
Table
2, presents the summary statistics and correlations between the elements of the
TPB model. The results reveal significant associations between most of the
components analyzed.
Table 2
Statistics
of the model variables
|
TPB factor |
M |
D.S. |
Attitude |
Subjective Norm |
Perceived Control |
|
Attitude |
3.47 |
1.90 |
|||
|
Subjective Norm |
3.29 |
1.74 |
0.45** |
||
|
Percieved Control |
3.59 |
1.92 |
0.16** |
0.24** |
|
|
Intention |
1.90 |
1.83 |
-0.20** |
0.19** |
0.23** |
Note: a. Means (M), standard
deviations (S.D.) and correlations between items for attitudes (A), subjective
norms (NS), perceived behavioral control (PC) and intentions (I) of the
participants regarding the law in Ecuador. b. ** (p<0.01).
Source: Own elaboration, 2024.
The
path analysis presented in Figure I, represents the TPB model, which shows the
coefficients that correspond to the constructs TPB, attitude, subjective norm
and perceived control, all of which interact to influence young people's
intention to break the law. The attitude expresses the position of young people
towards the flexibility and severity of the law; the subjective norm evaluates
the influence of the social circle with respect to the flexibility and severity
of the law; and the perceived control that young people have to use the laws in
their favor to avoid being convicted of committing a crime in Ecuador.
Source: Own elaboration, 2024.
Figure
I: Path analysis of TPB factors and
their prediction of intention to break the law
It is
observed in Table 3 that attitude has a negative relationship with intention,
with a significant path coefficient of -0.367 (p=**). On the contrary,
intention has a positive relationship with subjective norm (path coefficient =
0.333), which means that the perceived social norm supports the severity of the
law, therefore, intentions to respect it are stronger. This relationship is
also statistically significant (p=**).
Table 3
Path
coefficients in the TPB model for juvenile criminal intentions
|
Estimates |
P |
|||
|
Intention |
<--- |
Attitude |
-0.367 |
** |
|
Intention |
<--- |
Subjective Norm |
0.333 |
** |
|
Intention |
<--- |
Percieved
Control |
0.204 |
** |
Note:
** significance 0.001 (two-tailed).
Source: Own elaboration, 2024.
Furthermore,
intention is positively correlated with perceived control, where the degree of
perceived control over the law strengthens the intention to respect it (path
coefficient = 0.204). This relationship is highly statistically significant (p
= 0.01).
The
findings allowed us to reject the first hypothesis that states that a
respectful attitude towards the severity of the law will have an effect on
young people's intentions not to break the law. The inverse relationship
between attitude and the intention not to commit illegal actions may seem
contradictory (Bryan-Hancock & Casey,
2011). These results can be explained from two perspectives. On the one hand,
young people may be aware of compliance with the law, despite perceiving its
lack of severity. In their study, Li & Van Rooij
(2022) demonstrated that compliance can exist without a complete transmission
and reception of legal norms within and within the regulated organization.
In this regard, Mukti, Rachmi & Rustamaji (2022) point
out that the external internalization of justice has the following forms: a).
Divinity and humanity as a moral parameter; b) unity and democracy as a policy
parameter; and, c) social justice as a parameter of the objective to be
achieved. Taking this into account, one could argue that the young people in
this study have probably internalized respect for the law, despite having a
perception of leniency.
On the other hand, there are situations in which people,
especially young people, might see more lenient laws as an opportunity to
challenge the legal system (Bryan-Hancock & Casey, 2011; Arafat &
Asmundi, 2022; Pickard, 2022). This may be attributed to factors such as a
feeling of rebellion, whereby some people may be naturally inclined to
challenge perceived authority or excessive restrictions (Pickard, 2022).
Regarding rebellious behavior, Mattheis (2022) maintains that there is a
special justification for youthful disobedience. He distinguishes between
various forms of youth disobedience, drawing on the democratic foundation of
civil disobedience.
This
sense of rebellion can be manipulated by gangs that involve young people in
criminal organizations (Solar & Pérez, 2023; Sekar
& Bhuvaneswari, 2023; Moreno-Guaicha et al., 2024), which is
a very common occurrence in Latin America. These seemingly unruly children are,
in fact, highly regulated by “the rules of the street” (Solar & Pérez, 2023,
p. 2). There are other examples that illustrate cases in which laws perceived
as harsh have not resulted in significant reductions in crime rates.
Regarding
the second hypothesis, it confirms that subjective norms can shape individuals'
attitudes towards the law and their intentions to comply with it. If
individuals believe that their social group values legality, they are more
likely to develop positive attitudes toward the law and have greater intentions
to respect it (Popa et al., 2019). This is confirmed in this study with the
positive relationship between subjective norm and the intention to respect the
law.
The
discrepancy in the results between attitude and subjective norm in relation to
the intention not to transgress the law could be attributed to the presence of
significant social pressures or to a specific cultural context where compliance
with the law differs from individual attitudes. This could mean that young
people have their own criteria regarding the flexibility of the law.
Finally,
in relation to the third hypothesis, the study findings emphasize the
importance of perceived control in influencing behavioral intentions.
Specifically, there is a notable positive relationship between perceived
control and intention, meaning that greater perceived control over a particular
behavior amplifies the intention to engage in that behavior (Hagger et al.,
2022).
Findings
reveal a complex dynamic between individual attitudes, social norms, and
perceived control in relation to law compliance among youth. The negative
relationship between attitude and intention to respect the law, contrary to
what might be expected, suggests that, in the context studied, individual
perceptions of the severity of the law are not the determining factor in the
legal behavior of youths.
In
contrast, the strong positive influence of subjective norms indicates that the
social environment plays an important role in forming legal compliance
intentions. Furthermore, the positive relationship between perceived control
and intention to obey the law suggests that empowering youth to know the law
could be an effective strategy to promote law-abiding behaviors.
Conclusions
It is
concluded that the Theory of Planned Behavior is an appropriate framework to
understand the influence that the individual attitudes of young people, the
social environment and the control they perceive over the law, have on the
intention not to commit illicit acts. Probably the most notable contribution of
this research is the inverse relationship between the attitude of young people
and the intention to avoid illegal actions. This means that the perception of
strict regulation may not be enough to control youth crime.
However,
the research presents several limitations that are very important to consider.
First, the data are based on self-report responses, which can introduce social
desirability biases, especially in sensitive topics such as law enforcement.
Furthermore, being a cross-sectional study, definitive causal relationships
cannot be established. Second, the study focused on youth from particular
educational institutions, which could limit the generalizability of the results
to other demographic groups or contexts. Finally, the study focuses on
intentions, but does not measure actual law enforcement behavior, which could
introduce a gap between intention and action.
In
view of the limitations presented in this research, it is proposed as lines for
future research to use the TPB in longitudinal studies to track changes in the
intentions and criminal behavior of juvenile delinquents over a prolonged
period. This can help identify trajectories of criminal involvement and provide
insights into how intentions evolve over time.
Likewise,
expand the scope of the research to include a more diverse and representative
sample of young people. This could involve considering factors such as gender,
socioeconomic background, and cultural diversity to determine whether the
effectiveness of TPB varies between different groups. Furthermore, it is
recommended to complement quantitative studies with qualitative research.
Qualitative research can provide context and nuance to quantitative findings.
For example, in the context of a negative relationship between attitude and
intentions, qualitative research can help uncover the nuanced reasons behind
this counterintuitive phenomenon.
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