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Revista de Trabajo Social ISSN 2244-808X
Vol. 14 No3 647-660 pp. Copyright © 2024
Octubre-diciembre
ARTÍCULO DE INVESTIGACIÓN
Respuestas emocionales a la corrupción en diversos sectores de la sociedad:
contenido y dinámica
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11154833
Svetlana Dzhaneryan *, Darya Gvozdeva **, Ludmila Gabdulina***, Ekaterina
Belova****, Alina Kim*****
Resumen
Uno de los obstáculos a la lucha contra la corrupción son las actitudes de la población
hacia ella y la tolerancia de tales actitudes entre determinados segmentos de la
población. Este artículo analiza el contenido (características y modalidad) y la dinámica
de las reacciones emocionales a la corrupción en los ámbitos de la educación, la carrera,
la vida profesional, y la sociedad entre los individuos dentro del espectro de la
universidad al trabajo, en relación con sus correspondientes actitudes hacia la
corrupción. Se aplicaron encuestas, análisis de contenido y pruebas (Escala de
Emociones Diferenciales de Izard. Los resultados indican que dentro del espectro
universidad-trabajo, las actitudes predominantes hacia la corrupción son las relaciones
de Transacción Económica Empresarial y Valor Instrumental. Independientemente del
tipo de actitud, la corrupción como fenómeno social suscita emociones negativas entre
todos los participantes (excepto para los estudiantes que muestran neutralidad hacia la
corrupción percibida como un valor Instrumental) y específicamente en los campos de
carrera y profesional entre los encuestados que trabajan. La naturaleza de las emociones
fluctúa en función de la actitud hacia la corrupción, su contexto de manifestación y el
estatus de los encuestados. Se concluye que dentro del espectro que va de la universidad
al trabajo, la dinámica de las respuestas emocionales de los encuestados a la corrupción
en la educación, la carrera y los campos profesionales, y en la sociedad en general, está
condicionada por su actitud hacia la corrupción, manifestándose en reacciones
emocionales específicas, cambios en la naturaleza y modalidad de las emociones.
Palabras clave: percepción de la corrupción, tolerancia actitudinal, espectro
universidad-trabajo, corrupción en el sector educativo, escala de emociones
diferenciales, análisis de contenido.
Abstract
Emotional responses to corruption across various sectors of society: content
and dynamics
One of the obstacles to the fight against corruption is the attitudes of the population
towards it and the tolerance of such attitudes among certain segments of the population.
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648
This article analyzes the content (characteristics and modality) and dynamics of
emotional reactions to corruption in education, career, professional life, and society
among individuals within the university-to-wok spectrum, in relation to their
corresponding attitudes toward corruption. Surveys, content analysis and tests were
applied (Izard's Differential Emotions Scale. The results indicate that within the
university-work spectrum, the predominant attitudes towards corruption are the
relationships of Business Economic Transaction and Instrumental Value. Regardless of
the type of attitude, corruption as a social phenomenon elicits negative emotions among
all participants (except for students who show neutrality towards corruption perceived
as an instrumental value) and specifically in the career and professional fields among
working respondents. The nature of emotions fluctuates depending on the attitude
towards corruption, its context of manifestation, and the status of the respondents. It is
concluded that within the spectrum that goes from university to work, the dynamics of
respondents' emotional responses to corruption in education, career and professional
fields, and in society in general, is conditioned by their attitude towards corruption,
manifesting itself in specific emotional reactions, changes in the nature and modality of
emotions.
Keywords: corruption perception, attitudinal tolerance, university-to-work spectrum,
education sector corruption, differential emotions scale, content analysis.
Recibido: 29/02/2024 Aceptado: 22/04/2024
* La Universidad Federal del Sur, Academia de Psicología y Pedagogía, Rostov del Don, Rusia. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1743-5751 . E-mail: swetdjan@sfedu.ru
** La Universidad Federal del Sur, Academia de Psicología y Pedagogía, Rostov del Don, Rusia. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3577-7760 . E-mail: gvozdeva@sfedu.ru
*** La Universidad Federal del Sur, Academia de Psicología y Pedagogía, Rostov del Don, Rusia. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1143-6470 . E-mail: gal@sfedu.ru
**** La Universidad Federal del Sur, Academia de Psicología y Pedagogía, Rostov del Don, Rusia. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0683-137X . E-mail: evprokopeva@sfedu.ru
***** La Universidad Federal del Sur, Academia de Psicología y Pedagogía, Rostov del Don, Rusia. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4899-9770 . E-mail: alink@sfedu.ru
1. Introduction
One of significant obstacles to the struggle against corruption is the specific
content of attitudes towards it among the population as a whole and the tolerance of
such attitude among a portion of the population.
According to the vast majority of works, the objective side of the relationship under
study designated as corruption integrates its various manifestations. The literature
discusses the criteria for identifying types and forms of corruption, along with an
indication of the consequences for subjects of different scales (Gavelis, 2012; Fan, 2019;
Abdulla, 2021). The types and forms of corruption that are regarded by researchers as
one of the differentiating factors in the perception and attitude towards corruption
among the population (Fan, 2019). In the minds of citizens, corruption acts as an
acceptable and convenient mechanism for social life and solving personal problems
(Kondrashov, 2016), a forced response to objective circumstances, a specific value
(Nikolaev, 2019). These positions testify to the relevance of considering the
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psychological attitude to corruption as a value-semantic (goal-meaning) attitude, in
which corruption comprehended by the subject as a tool in achieving their goals and
satisfying their needs.
Attitudes towards corruption includes cognitive, emotional, behavioral components
(Harris & Bastedo, 2011; Harris & van der Merwe, 2012; Abun et al., 2020; Zhuravlev
& Kitova, 2022). The content of specific attitude lies not only in their substantive
objective content, but in the significance of the objective for the subject (Karpova et al.,
2020). With this in mind, we included people's interpretations of corruption and its
functions in the life of a particular individual in the content of the cognitive component
of the value-semantic attitude to corruption. In this regard, the cognitive component is
decisive for designating the type and subsequent analysis of the value-semantic attitude
to corruption.
The conative component of the attitude is expressed in motives and attitudes arising
from them, readiness to act one way or another with the object (Karpova et al., 2020),
including causes (Prasad et al., 2019), situational factors (Fischer et al., 2014),
justification (Harris & van der Merwe, 2012; McGee et al., 2015; Gutiérrez et al., 2017;
Zhuravlev & Kitova, 2022) of corruption manifestations. The content of this component
is the most relevant in terms of predicting the actual corrupt behavior in citizens with
different attitudes towards corruption. However, the results of studying the corruption
situation (D’ Agostino & Pieroni, 2019; Abun et al., 2020; Parra et al., 2021; Tanner et
al., 2022) do not allow a clear prediction of the real behavior of subjects in a real
corruption situation. Along with this, the majority of researchers from various branches
of science state a significant weight of the psychological characteristics of subjects in a
number of causes of corruption (Fan, 2019; Li et al., 2019; De Waele et al., 2021),
therefore we included the factors of giving and receiving a bribe as well as respondents'
assessments of the personality traits of a corrupting and a corrupted individual in the
content of the conative component.
The content of the emotional-evaluative component of the attitude under discussion,
which is represented by a verbal version of the respondents' perceived emotions and
assessments of corruption, is of particular interest in connection with the subject of this
study (Guvenli & Sanyal, 2012; Harris & van der Merwe, 2012; Gutiérrez et al., 2017).
Emotions towards corruption among ordinary citizens are recorded in a wide range of
experiences different in modality and sign: indifference, apathy (Fan, 2019), negative
feelings (Abun et al., 2020; Zhuravlev & Kitova, 2022) positive emotions from
participation in corrupt exchanges (Zhuravlev & Kitova, 2022). There is a connection
between the modality of emotions and the type of corruption (top or bottom) (Fan, 2019)
status of corrupt individuals (Fan, 2019), anti-corruption measures (Zhuravlev & Kitova,
2022) the stage of conformation to corrupt behavior. It is less often noted that the
attitude towards corruption is differentiated according to its sign depending on the field
of life in which corruption takes place (Nikolaev, 2019).
The verbal version of emotional assessment of corruption presented by the
respondent reflects the result of their awareness of their own experience. In turn, a
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650
person's awareness of their own experience is based on the correlation of this experience
with the object that causes it, and with the consequences for the person (Yurov, 2015).
Based on this, we considered the content of emotional-evaluative component as covering
not only emotions towards corruption, but also assessments of its consequences for
subjects of various scales (state, social groups, a particular individual) and its
countermeasures. In this article we focused on the analysis of only the emotional
experiences that people experience towards corruption in various fields of life. Here, it
is relevant to obtain an answer to the question about the dynamics of emotional
experiences in attitude to corruption. The emotional component of a holistic attitude is
the first step towards changing attitudes, which predetermines research interest in
emotional assessments of corruption.
The dynamics of attitudes towards corruption recorded by researchers is manifested
in an increase in the tolerance of said attitude (Vannovskaia, 2009) in feeling comfortable
with a bribe in the process of perpetuating individual corrupt behaviour. The
inconsistency of attitudes towards corruption is pointed out, which consists in the
inconsistency of the content of the cognitive and emotional components.
Methodically, the solution to the issue of dynamics of the emotional response to
corruption is to involve methods of longitudinal or transverse sections. It is obvious that
the latter is possible provided that the type of relation being measured is constant. Such
constancy is fixed by researchers who use tolerance as a criterion for typology of
attitudes. Our studies have established the presence of similar types (in terms of the
content of the cognitive component) of attitudes among schoolchildren, college students,
students, and working subjects. This allows to establish the characteristics and dynamics
of emotional experiences towards corruption in specific areas of life among respondents
who differ in status and age characteristics, but demonstrate a similar type of value-
semantic attitude towards corruption. Analysis of the content of the emotional response
should include not only the sign, but also the phenomenology of the modality of
emotions. To solve this problem, a study was undertaken aimed at establishing the
content (sign and modality) and the dynamics of emotional experiences towards
corruption in different areas of life among students and working subjects with similar
types of value-semantic attitudes towards corruption.
2. Materials and methods
Participants included 120 university students aged 19-26, 102 young working adults
aged 22-31, and 116 mature working adults aged 34-59, all employed in a variety of
professions in the southern region of the Russian Federation.
The study utilized several measures to examine the components of attitudes toward
corruption. These included a survey with a questionnaire designed to explore the content
of attitudes toward corruption, content analysis of the questionnaire's open-ended
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questions, testing using the Scale of Differential Emotions (Izard, 2010), the cross-
sectional method, and statistical data analysis techniques.
In our previous publications, we described a methodological procedure for
establishing types of attitudes towards corruption: pilot coding of respondents' answers,
expert assessment of the adequacy of the choice of category indicators and a measure
of consistency of these assessments (Dzhaneryan et al., 2016; Dzhaneryan & Gvozdeva,
2020). The relative frequency of occurrence of a category was taken as a quantitative
unit of content analysis, each of which reflected the content of components of attitudes
towards corruption (Dzhaneryan et al., 2016).
Results of the content-analytical processing were reflected in the content-semantic
interpretations of corruption and its functions - in the cognitive component, which was
considered as paramount for the designation and subsequent analysis of the value-
semantic attitude towards corruption.
Based on the results of the factor analysis of indicators denoting the definitions of
corruption, and on the basis of determining the dominant individual factor assessment
for each respondent, groups of students, working respondents, as subjects of one or
another type of attitude towards corruption were identified. The types of their attitude
were identified: Illegal act (29.6% of mature working respondents); Business economic
transaction (63.3% of students; 67.5% of young and 34.7% of mature working
respondents); Instrumental value (36.7% of students, 32.5% of young and 35.6% of
mature working respondents). In the university-work range, the through types are the
Business Economic Transaction and Instrumental Value attitudes.
In relation to the Business Economic Transaction, corruption is understood by the
respondents as social interaction or the exchange of services and the corresponding
reward for it; in relation to the Instrumental Value - as a universal means of satisfying
various scarce human needs. Here we focused on establishing the emotional experiences
that accompany the knowledge of respondents about the prevalence of corruption in the
areas of education, professional career, and society as a whole. Respondents assessed
the frequency of corruption in each of these areas on a 10-point scale (1 point - does
not occur at all, 10 points - occurs to the greatest extent) while answering the question
of the questionnaire: "To what extent is corruption widespread in each of the areas of
life?". The emotional response of a respondent to information about the facts of
corruption was recorded using the Scale of Differential Emotions, which allows for
describing each of the fundamental emotions using a list of adjectives. The instruction
asked the respondent to assess the presence of each of the emotions corresponding to
their current emotional response to information about the corruption manifestation
event. The individual emotional response was calculated based on the dominance of one
or another fundamental emotion in the respondent in response to the fact of corruption
in various fields of public life that became known to them. Each of the fundamental
emotions is characterized by the specifics of phenomenology and behavioural
pattern; the universality of expression, interpretation and understanding by people;
has a motivational potential and activity directed at the cause of emotions (interest,
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surprise, disgust, contempt, anger) or its consequences in the form of actualization of
the subject's self-consciousness (shame, guilt, grief) (Izard, 2010). Then, multiple linear
regression analysis was carried out, where the dependent variable was the respondent's
assessment of the frequency of corruption in a particular area of life, and independent
variables were emotional experiences. The leading partial emotional experiences
associated with respondents' awareness of the prevalence of corruption in a particular
area of life were determined by the maximum values of the standardized coefficient of
regression beta.
Statistical processing of the results was carried out using multiple linear regression
analysis, descriptive statistics, quartile procedures, binomial criteria. Regression
analysis, as well as checking the assumptions about the normality of distributions, were
performed in the Factor Analysis, Multiple Regression, Descriptive Statistics modules
(Shapiro-Wilks' W-test, Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test for general relations with
adjusted probabilities for sample observations Lilliefors) of the Tibco statistica 13.3
software.
3. Results and discussion
Prevalence of corrupt practices
Respondents were quite aware of the prevalence of corrupt practices. Table 1
presents the results reflecting the distribution of respondents demonstrating grades of
assessments - very low (X<4.25), low (X>=4.25 and X<6), high (X>=6 and X<8), very
high (Х>=8) as frequencies of corruption in different areas of life. The number of
respondents in each of the groups assessing the severity of corrupt manifestations in
the relevant area of life was taken as 100% (Table 1).
Table 1
Distribution of respondents' assessments (in %) of the frequency of
corruption in education, career and professional fields, and in society as a
whole
Respondents
Low and very
low scores
High and very high
scores
Education
University students
19.92
80.09
Working individuals
52.74
47.25
Career and professional field
University students
31.33
68.66
Working individuals
50.2
48.87
Society as a whole
University students
49.03
50.95
Working individuals
52.66
47.29
Source: Conducted by the researchers
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Firstly, students, compared with working respondents, gravitate toward high rates of
corruption in education and the career and professional fields. The peak of high scores
of the frequency of corruption is noted by students in the field of education. Secondly,
students rate the frequency of corruption in education and career and professional fields
higher than the frequency of corruption in society as a whole. In other words, already in
the course of their education, the majority of students formed an idea of the high
frequency of corruption not only in the area of occurrence that is relevant to them, but
also in their future area of professional career.
The characteristics of respondents' emotional experiences regarding corruption in
education, career and professional fields, in society as a whole were considered
depending on the type of value-semantic attitude towards corruption.
Attitude towards corruption “Business Economic Transaction”
Thus, in the presence of the Business Economic Transaction attitude, the leading
emotional experiences towards corruption in education were found only among adult
working subjects - expressed interest (Table 2). Leading emotional experiences towards
corruption in education among students and young working subjects have not been
identified.
Table 2
Emotional experiences towards corruption in different areas of life among
respondents who demonstrate their attitude to corruption as a Business
Economic Transaction
Education
Career and professional
field
Society as a whole
Students
Unidentified
(R=0,604; p <0,0017)
Interest
(Beta= +0,263; p<0,05)
Grief
(Beta=-0,525; p<0,0031)
Contempt
(Beta=+0,614; p<0,0005)
(R=0,424; p<0,031)
Fear
(Beta= +0,766; p<0,009)
Shame
(Beta=-0.572; p<0.049)
Working individuals (ages 22 to 33)
Unidentified
(R=0,509; p<0,0067)
Anger
(Beta=+0,509; p<0,0067)
(R=0,662; p<0,00098)
Joy
(Beta=+0,264; p<0,1)
Contempt
(Beta=+0,574; p<0,0016)
Working individuals (ages 31 to 59)
(R=0,414; p<0,0011)
(R=0,466; p<0,00015)
(R=0,463; p<0,00017)
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Interest
(Beta=+0,401;
p<0,00083)
Fear
(Beta=-0,322;
p<0,0064)
Interest
(Beta=+0,531;
p<0,000036)
Shame
(Beta=-0,372; p<0,0057)
Anger
(Beta=+0,571;
p<0,000033)
Shame
(Beta=-0,315; p<0,017)
Notes: R is the coefficient of multiple linear regression; Beta is the standardized
regression coefficient.
The leading emotional experience towards corruption in the career and professional
fields in students is expressed contempt, in young working subjects - expressed anger,
in mature working subjects - expressed interest. The peak of negative hostile
experiences towards corruption in the career and professional fields takes place among
students and working youth, which is confirmed by the modality of emotions of contempt
and anger demonstrated by students and working youth, which are included in the so-
called hostile triad consisting of disgust, contempt and anger (Izard, 2010). The leading
emotional experience towards corruption in society is manifested in students in
expressed fear, in young working respondents in expressed contempt, in mature working
respondents in expressed anger.
Attitude towards corruption “Instrumental Value”
If the respondents have the “Instrumental Value” attitude, the leading emotional
experience towards corruption in the field of education is low guilt among students, and
pronounced guilt among adult working subjects. Young working subjects do not have
leading emotional experiences about corruption in the field of education.
The leading emotional experiences towards corruption in the career and professional
fields are pronounced fear in young working subjects, pronounced grief in mature
working subjects. Students do not have leading emotional experiences towards
corruption in the career and professional fields and in society as a whole (Table 3).
Table 3
Emotional experiences of the prevalence of corruption in different areas of life
among respondents who demonstrate their attitude towards corruption as an
Instrumental value
Education
Career and professional
field
Society as a whole
Students
(R=0,642; p<0,026)
Anger
(Beta=+0,583;
p<0,024)
Unidentified
Unidentified
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Shame
(Beta=+1,005; p<0,03)
Guilt
(Beta=-1,529;
p<0,005)
Working individuals (ages 22 to 33)
Unidentified
(R=0,974; p<0,019)
Interest
(Beta=-0,496; p<0,016)
Grief
(Beta=-1,398; p<0,0049)
Disgust
(Beta=1,19; p<0,0021)
Contempt
(Beta=-1,22; p<0,0045)
Fear
(Beta=+1,851;
p<0,0039).
Shame
(Beta=+0,868; p<0,0083)
Guilt
(Beta=-0,698; p<0,012)
(R=0,894; p<0,0063)
Joy
(Beta=+0,825; p<0,021)
Grief
(Beta=+1,53; p<0,0023)
Anger
(Beta=-0,977; p<0,0062)
Guilt
(Beta=-1,01; p<0,0021)
Working individuals (ages 31 to 59)
(R=0,303; p<0,028)
Shame
(Beta=-0,30; p<0,048)
Guilt
(Beta=+0,408;
p<0,008)
(R=0,412; p<0,001)
Grief
(Beta=+0,374;
p<0,0009).
Shame
(Beta=-0,275; p<0,013)
(R=0,643; p<0,00000)
Grief
(Beta=+0,381;
p<0,00044)
Disgust
(Beta=+0,291; p<0,0047)
Fear
(Beta=+0,382; p<0,0012)
Guilt
(Beta=-0,416;
p<0,00062)
Notes: R is the coefficient of multiple linear regression; Beta is the standardized
regression coefficient.
The leading emotional experiences towards corruption in society were distributed as
follows: students did not have such experiences, young working respondents had
pronounced grief, and mature working respondents had pronounced grief and fear.
Discussion
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656
Summarizing the results of the study leads to the conclusion that there is both
invariance and variability of the sign of emotions shown by respondents in relation to
corruption in a particular area of people's lives.
Firstly, negative experiences in all respondents (excluding students who demonstrate
neutrality to corruption comprehended as an Instrumental value) are caused by
corruption as a social phenomenon, and among young working respondents the cause
is corruption in the career and professional fields. In other cases, the sign of emotions
varies depending on the type of attitude towards corruption, the scope of its
manifestation and the status of respondents. The positive interest in corruption in
education and the career and professional fields among mature working subjects
demonstrating the Business Economic Transaction attitude is noteworthy. The positive
emotional response of mature working respondents reinforces their preconceived
notions, and perhaps their direct experience that thanks to corruption, successful
learning outcomes, finding a job, profitable career moves, etc. can be reliably, quickly,
and effortlessly ensured. This experience or corrupt scenario can be passed on to the
younger generation, thus creating a kind of corruption cycle.
Secondly, a neutral response to corruption in the areas of life under consideration
takes place among young people and, in particular, among students. At the final stages
of the university-work range, there is a pronounced emotional response, the sign of
which is determined by the type of attitude of subjects to corruption.
Thirdly, in terms of content, such modalities as interest, surprise, disgust, anger are
considered as feelings towards the drive that caused it, manifesting itself as a capture
by the object (interest) (Izard, 2010), a desire to get away from the object (disgust),
superiority over the object (contempt), the desire to attack the object as a source of
anger. These emotions towards corruption are leading mainly among respondents
(excluding students) demonstrating the type of attitude towards corruption as a Business
Economic Transaction.
On the contrary, such modalities as fear, guilt, grief contribute to the actualization
of a person’s self-consciousness, manifesting themselves, respectively, as a premonition
of complete vulnerability, insecurity (fear), as repentance, self-condemnation, lowering
self-esteem (guilt), as an experience of discouragement, suffering (grief). Emotions of
this kind directly reflect not so much the reaction to the fact of corruption as the reaction
to the consequences for the subject. They are leading among respondents who
demonstrate the type of attitude towards corruption as an Instrumental value.
Finally, from the point of view of intolerance of attitudes towards corruption, the
respondents who implement the attitude towards corruption as a Business Economic
Transaction are encouraging. Thus, contempt and anger are shown by students and
young working respondents, respectively, towards corruption in the career and
professional fields, and young and mature workers towards corruption in society as a
whole.
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Based on the results of the study, we can talk about the selective dynamics of the
emotional response of respondents to corruption, which manifests itself in a particular
area of life, depending on the type of their attitude towards corruption.
If corruption is comprehended as a Business Economic Transaction in education, then
the shift in leading emotional experiences from the beginning to the end of the
university-work range can be traced as a transition from a neutral response to positive
(interest) emotions; if corruption is comprehended as an Instrumental value, then from
avoiding negative (guilt) emotions to its actualization (guilt).
In the case of attitude towards corruption as a Business Economic Transaction in the
career and professional fields, the shift in leading emotional experiences from the
beginning to the end of the university-work range can be traced as a transition from
pronounced negative (contempt) experiences to the actualization of positive (interest)
experiences; in the case of attitude to corruption as an Instrumental value in the career
and professional fields - as a shift from a neutral response to a negative (grief)
experience.
If corruption is comprehended as a Business Economic Transaction in the society as
a whole, then the shift of its leading emotional experiences from the beginning to the
end of the university-work range manifests itself as a change in the modalities of
negative emotions (fear, anger, respectively). If there is an attitude towards corruption
as an Instrumental value, there is a shift from a neutral response to negative emotions
(grief, fear).
4. Conclusion
The presence, sign and modality of the emotional response of subjects to corruption
is determined by their status and the type of their attitude towards corruption. The
obtained results lead to the conclusion that it is necessary to form specific anti-corruption
psychological and pedagogical programs of work with the population, taking into account
the type of attitude to corruption, the scope of its manifestation, the status of people.
We believe that young respondents who experience negative emotions towards
corruption are seriously interested in organizing an effective anti-corruption education
system that would reveal possible measures to prevent corruption and also demonstrate
the real results of their implementation.
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