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Vol. 41, Nº 76 (2023), 769-779
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Recibido el 04/12/22 Aceptado el 12/01/23
Manipulation as an element of the
political process in social networks
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.4176.45
Nataliia Likarchuk *
Zoriana Velychko **
Olha Andrieieva ***
Raisa Lenda ****
Hanna Vusyk *****
Abstract
The relevance of the research comes from the extent of the
inuence of information and communication technologies in
socially signicant areas, where the manipulation of public
consciousness, in the Internet space, particularly in social
networks, is an obvious phenomenon. The aim of the study was
to discuss the opinion that the main driving factor in the use of
social networks, as a proven platform for the manipulation of
public consciousness, has been increased by social restrictions on personal
contacts caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. General and special research
methods were employed to achieve the stated objective. It is concluded
that, despite the obvious advantages of the use of social networks in the
political process, the political manipulations that currently exist in the
virtual environment are often of a destructive nature and carry hidden
symbolic threats to destabilize the life of a given country, as well as to
worsen the quality of life of each of its citizens. Most of the time, political
manipulations in the virtual environment take place at various stages of the
electoral process.
* Doctor of Political Sciences, Professor of Department of Public Administration, Educational and
Scientic Institute of Public Management and Public Service of the Taras Shevchenko National
University of Kyiv, 04050, 12/2 Akademik Romodanov Str., Kyiv, Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.
org/0000-0001-7119-439X
** Candidate of Science in Social Communications (Ph.D.), Associate Professor of the Department of
Ukrainian Press, Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, 79000 Lviv, 1, Universytetska St. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9718-0068
*** Doctor of Political Sciences, Professor Chair of International Information Educational and scientic
institute of international relations Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, 36/1 Y. Illienka, Kyiv,
Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4587-1267
**** Candidate of Philogical Sciences, Associate Professor. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1201-
5472
***** PhD. in Philology, Associate Professor in Department of Ukrainian Language and Slavic Studies, The
Faculty of Philology and Social Communications Berdyansk State Pedagogical University, 4, Schmidta
St., Berdiansk, Zaporizhzhia oblast Temporarily moved to: 66, Zhukovs`ki St., Zaporizhzhia. ORCID
ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1111-5172
770
Nataliia Likarchuk, Zoriana Velychko, Olha Andrieieva, Raisa Lenda y Hanna Vusyk
Manipulation as an element of the political process in social networks
Keywords: virtual political processes; political manipulations; public
management; social networks; political communication.
La manipulación como elemento del proceso político
en las redes sociales
Resumen
Relevancia de la investigación viene por la por la extensión de la
inuencia de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación en
ámbitos socialmente signicativos, donde la manipulación de la conciencia
pública, en el espacio de Internet, en particular en las redes sociales, es un
fenómeno evidente. El objetivo del estudio fue discutir la opinión de que
el principal factor impulsor del uso de las redes sociales, como plataforma
probada para la manipulación de la conciencia pública, se ha incrementado
por las restricciones sociales en los contactos personales provocadas por la
pandemia del COVID-19. Para el logro del objetivo planteado se emplearon
métodos de investigación generales y especiales. Se concluye que, a pesar de
las evidentes ventajas del uso de las redes sociales en el proceso político, las
manipulaciones políticas que existen en la actualidad en el entorno virtual
son a menudo de naturaleza destructiva y conlleva amenazas simbólicas
ocultas de desestabilizar la vida de un determinado país, así como de
empeorar la calidad de vida de cada uno de sus ciudadanos. La mayoría de
las veces, las manipulaciones políticas en el entorno virtual tienen lugar en
varias fases del proceso electoral.
Palabras clave: procesos políticos virtuales; manipulaciones políticas;
gestión pública; redes sociales; comunicación política.
Introduction
The role of social networks in everyday human life is signicant,
especially as demonstrated by the events triggered by the COVID-19
pandemic when personal contacts were restricted, and isolation measures
were applied. This period of social distancing demonstrated how, with the
help of the virtual environment, it is possible to successfully manipulate
many people’s minds without resorting to overt psychological pressure.
Thus, politics, as an important component of the social life of
individuals, received already proven mechanisms of manipulation, which
existed in the world before this historical moment but have not yet shown
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their eectiveness in a practical way. Yes, from the very beginning it was
a question of mechanisms for manipulating public consciousness, as used
by the public administration system in health care. Still, subsequently, the
sphere of inuence spread to other spheres of social life.
Given the relevance of the research topic and its practical importance,
the issue of the mechanisms of political manipulation in social networks
and beyond causes a lively discussion among scholars around the world,
“manipulation checks are often advisable in experimental studies, yet they
rarely appear in practice” (Kane and Barabas, 2018: 240). Thus, Manuel
Goyanes explores the issues of political pressure on the media and notes
that “the journalistic eld of Spanish public service broadcaster has
traditionally been questioned for its “lack of political autonomy because
of pervasive news manipulations over the course of years” (Goyanes et al.,
2020: 1079).
Relevant to the analysis in this study were the works of scientists devoted
to the problem of the use of social networks for the implementation of
manipulations at all stages of the electoral process. Nicolas Martin devoted
his research paper to “the analysis of election fraud in Pakistan and India
and the political manipulations that were used during the elections” (Martin
and Picherit, 2019: 15).
The use of political manipulation techniques, particularly the issue
of nancial support for the electoral process, is also addressed by Seeun
Ryu, who “examines how state tax and expenditure limitations (TELs)
aect the size of scal reservas over election cycles” (Seeun et al., 2020:
379). Regarding the importance of studying the nancial aspect of the
political process and the manipulation that occurs in its various forms,
Pierre Mandon also notes in his writings, however, it is much clearer that
researchers selectively report that national leaders do manipulate scal
tools in order to be reelected (Mandon and Cazals, 2018).
Natália S. Bueno also devoted her scholarly work to exploring the
interplay of nance, manipulation, and the electoral process, noting that
distribution without attribution reduces the likelihood of political budget
cycles compared to distribution with attribution, which together reinforces
pre-election expansion of policy benets (Bueno, 2021).
Manipulative techniques do not exist in isolation, whichever sphere of
social life they touch - politics, education, culture, or health care. “The issues
of political manipulation” have been comprehensively examined in the
work of Norbert Paulo, who notes that “inuence (on voters) can be exerted
through manifold means and to dierent degrees, from communicative
information and rhetoric over mass media advertisements and propaganda
to exploitation of psychological weaknesses, subliminal priming, etc.”
(Norbert and Bublitz, 2019: 58).
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Nataliia Likarchuk, Zoriana Velychko, Olha Andrieieva, Raisa Lenda y Hanna Vusyk
Manipulation as an element of the political process in social networks
Draws attention to the complexity of the political process and Christopher
M. Federico, in his opinion:
Stronger need for security and certainty attracts people to a broad-based
politically conservative ideology, thus, a person’s preference for a political idea
specically conservatism will be inuenced by its psychological need for security,
which can also be used in one or another political manipulation in social media”
(Federico and Malka, 2018: 38).
It is dicult to understand the nature of political manipulation by
examining generalized experiences, so Jonathan Matusitz chose to study
the specic case of political manipulation on social media, comparing it
to terrorism, Luis Posada scandal involved more than just the terror; it
also involved the questionable collaboration of several U.S. presidents,
government ocials, and agencies with entities in Cuban-exile communities
(Matusitz and Simi, 2021).
Robert Gorwa also preferred to examine one particular object of
political manipulation on social media, namely the creation and use of so-
called “bots” in the political process, noting that most recently, platform
companies like Facebook and Twitter have been summoned to testify about
bots as part of investigations into digitally enabled foreign manipulation
during the 2016 U.S. presidential election (Gorwa and Guilbeault, 2018).
Whichever element of the political process is investigated in terms
of its use of social media manipulation, it is imperative to examine it
comprehensively, taking into account all the causal relationships and
peculiarities of its legal nature. As correctly notes Luke Fowler, “... apply
Kingdon’s multiple streams framework (MSF) to policy implementation
to reect a nested process separate from but interdependent with
policymaking” (Fowler, 2021: 418).
The results of these scientic works testify to the powerful psychological
potential of social networks for their use in the implementation to inuence
the public consciousness. Political manipulations implemented in the
virtual environment are used for election campaigning, legal and illegal
activities of dierent political groups of a particular country, if we are
talking about their use at the national level, for information warfare at the
interstate level.
1. Materials and methods
To achieve the goal and objective of the study and to conduct a
comprehensive analysis of the nature of political manipulation existing in
social networks, their impact on society, we used general scientic methods
of research, as well as legal and sociological methods.
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2. Results and discussion
In the era of globalization and the introduction of information and
communication technologies, almost all socially signicant areas of
society, accompanied simultaneously by the democratization of political
processes and the political system, cause the rapid development of network
technologies, innovative means of communication, and other attributes
inherent in the life of the post-industrial world community.
These changes can be implemented as liberal-democratic
transformations in socio-political life, the creation of the ombudsman
institution, the formation of e-government, or as nominal changes taking
place at the level of populism, the content of which consists only in a claim
for democratization as the main demand of society without real changes in
the political process of a particular country. An example of such changes
can be dened as permanent reforms with respect to state structures,
reorganization, and the creation or elimination of certain state agencies.
Consequently, it is the realization of the political aspect in the digital
society that is remarkable in this trend of transformation, which manifests
itself, rst, in the diversity of subjects, both representatives of society and
direct participants in the political process, second, in the diversity of the
forms in which it is directly realized, and also “ndings suggest an important
“interaction occurs among problems, policies, and politics during the policy
implementation process” (Fowler, 2021: 418) because the forms of its
implementation cover almost all spheres of social life: education, culture,
science, sports, health care, etc.
Obviously, whatever political processes take place in any given country,
the inuence of the media and social networks on their outcome will be
signicant, as evidenced by studies such as, “drawing upon 45 in-depth
interviews with TVE news workers, our ndings rst illustrate the reach
and morphology of political pressures in TVE, examining how the news
production management structures the anatomy of political interferences
in the newsroom” (Goyanes et al., 2020);
By examining both overt and subtle mechanisms of electoral manipulation
and fraud during electoral seasons in India and Pakistan, this special issue moves
away from the dominant legalistic framework for examining electoral malpractice
and demonstrates how electoral processes in the region cannot easily be insulated
from an increasingly criminalized political landscape (Martin and Picherit, 2020:
08).
From the above, we can conclude that the most vulnerable element of
the political process that falls under the inuence of manipulation is the
electoral process, and it is through the media and social networks that it is
possible to inuence the sympathies or antipathies of voters, for example by
forming identical messages in social networks that are repeated many times.
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Nataliia Likarchuk, Zoriana Velychko, Olha Andrieieva, Raisa Lenda y Hanna Vusyk
Manipulation as an element of the political process in social networks
Social networks are actively used with the use of political manipulation, as
we have noted, for campaigning, despite the fact that the voting process
itself has traditionally remained oine.
Furthermore, increasing use of social media technologies appears to
expand citizen input at greatly reduced cost (Piccorelli and Stivers, 2019).
The use of social media and the successful use of political manipulation
during the electoral process allows for less costly election administration at
all levels of government.
Politics in a state does not exist in isolation from other social phenomena
and has close links with culture, sociology, and psychology, “... cognitive
and emotional deciencies can aect moral y political decisions” (Norbert
and Bublitz, 2019: 70).
A characteristic feature of the political process at the present stage is
the total informatization of the social space, information, methods, and
mechanisms of its presentation in social networks have a direct impact on
its recipients, “... information manipulation theory, which postulates that
information is packaged through manipulative messages; it is transmitted
from a sender who gives false information to a receiver, the audience”
(Matusitz and Simi. 2021: 63).
Equally important is the issue of funding the manipulation of the
political process carried out on social networks. Unscrupulous participants
of the process, having more economic opportunities than their opponents,
often resort to dirty manipulations, such as spreading fake information
about them with the help of so-called “bots”.
And cases of nancial manipulation in the political process are not
unique to our state, so in the United States “using a panel data set of 47 U.S.
states from 1986 to 2013, we nd that the persistent pattern of electoral
cycles in general fund balances (GFBs) disappears in states with stricter
TEL” (Seeun et al., 2020: 382).
However, it is dicult to prove the fact of political manipulation
in a virtual environment through the use of nancial means in the
implementation of various forms of the political “process, based on data
collected from 1037 regressions in 46 studies, our meta-analysis suggests
that little if any, systematic evidence can be found in the research record
that national leaders do manipulate scal tools in order to be reelected”
(Mandon and Cazals, 2018: 301).
At the present stage, some countries in the world are trying to eliminate
illegal nancial inuence on the electoral process in order to avoid possible
political manipulation. Brazilian rules banning credit claiming before
elections while allowing the distribution of benets until Election Day
provides an opportunity to dierentiate between distribution and credit
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claiming combined with distribution as an engine that reinforces political
budget cycles (Bueno, 2021).
Consequently, the political processes taking place in the constantly
transforming modern digital society remain unchanged in their content. It
is a peculiar interaction between the participants of the political process,
the political elite, state structures, as conductors of the political activity of
political subjects and society, according to a particular historical stage, only
the nature of this interaction changes, which entails the reformatting of the
political system in this or that country as a whole.
Social networks provide great advantages for the development of
society, rst of all, it is about the interactivity of the virtual environment,
through which the global network acts as an eective mechanism to provide
feedback between the authorities and society, the new technology opens up
great opportunities for participants of the political process.
Also at the present stage, there is wide use of social networks by
participants of the political process, relevant to it and perspective for
the development of the political segment of the Internet in the future,
propaganda is carried out by means of various Internet technologies which
allows to draw more attention of the electorate to itself and leads to increase
of political activity of citizens.
However, despite the obvious advantages of using social networks to
implement policy objectives, we are inevitably confronted with the threats
that it hides in itself. We are talking about unscrupulous participants in the
political process and the manipulation techniques they use in the virtual
environment of social networks.
Amid widespread reports of digital inuence operations during major
elections, policymakers, scholars, and journalists have become increasingly
interested in the political impact of social media bots (Gorwa and Guilbeault,
2018).
An example of such political manipulation on social media is also
deepfake, a set of technological transformations of images and videos
created using articial intelligence. Deepfake is a fabricated video, created
from scratch or based on real-life footage, which aims to reproduce the
appearance and voice of a real person performing actions or expressing
speech that she never actually performed.
The basis of the action of political deepfakes is the technique of
manipulating people. These techniques may use copies of images of political
gures as the subject and people around the world as the object. Electronic
social media play a crucial role in the promotion of deepfakes.
As social networks are getting more and more popular day by day,
large numbers of users becoming constantly active social network users
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Nataliia Likarchuk, Zoriana Velychko, Olha Andrieieva, Raisa Lenda y Hanna Vusyk
Manipulation as an element of the political process in social networks
(Bayrakdar et al., 2020), which is related to the development of human
civilization and the historical events it is experiencing: “Man is a social
being” “...we argue that relationships between dispositional attributes and
political preferences vary in the extent to which they reect an organic
functional resonance between dispositions and preferences or identity-
expressive motivation to adopt a political attitude...” (Federico and Malka,
2018: 40).
According to this, political manipulation in social networks is quite
eective in achieving certain goals, for example, using the issues of national
minorities of a particular country. Language maintenance and revitalization
eorts are increasingly important as languages spoken by smaller languages
continue to be lost as globalization prioritizes larger languages of economic
and political importance (Lou-Magnuson and Onnis, 2018).
“Being suggestible to each other’s expectations enables pro-social
skills that are crucial for social learning and adaptation” (Duerler et al.,
2020: 65). It is an undeniable fact that a person’s expectations regarding
a certain phenomenon and event are subjective and are also actively used
in the implementation of political manipulation in social networks. We are
talking primarily about the application: “... on communicative patterns
prominent in social media: algorithms to aggregate news, lter bubbles,
echo chambers, spirals of silence, false-consensus eects, fake news, and
intentional disinformation” (Höttecke and Allchin, 2020: 445).
Social networks at the present stage should be seen as a trend - the
direction of development of the political system. As practice shows, in
large cities, which are centers of political and economic activity, this trend
has already been fully implemented, it has become part of the daily life of
man. In this case, we can argue about the actual informatization of political
processes at the regional level.
“While the governance of the Internet is often assumed to be merely a
technical matter, it is actually a ercely contested political arena, in which
institutional arrangements are still being shaped” (White, 2019, 465). Such
informatization brings both positive changes to the political system and
creates certain risks for it.
It is necessary to consolidate the political Internet community,
preventing the disintegration of network segments based on ideological or
other similar criteria. In addition, an important point in the functioning of
social networks is state control over security in the virtual environment,
which is not reduced to authoritarian methods of total control and non-
admission of political forces in the arena of social networks based on their
political perceptions, provided that the latter carry out their activities
within the law.
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It is also necessary to dwell on the problem of political manipulation in
social networks, such as the role of the political elite in their implementation.
“Many posts socialist countries are run by an elite with links to the socialist
legacy and often share similar challenges and issues” (Pulatov and Ahmad,
2021: 1248). “The latter shows how sub-national transfer systems are
aected by political manipulation, specically that transfers are directed
toward co-partisans of the politician who sends the funds” (Pickard, 2020:
113).
Like the media, political elites can use social media to satisfy their own
needs, such as “scoring” votes for politicians. This leads to a loss of public
trust in the government and the degradation of the political system as a
whole, as well as the problem of manipulation in social media, which is
carried out “...by the communicative tactics of provocation, warning,
menacing, blackmailing, persuasion and attery” (Bigunova and Kosovets,
2021: 100).
Conclusions
Thus, at the present stage of development of digital society, mechanisms
of manipulation in social networks are one of the main means of information
methods of confrontation, both between the states of the world, for the
necessary “transit” of external ideas, values, symbols from the political
control to destroy the traditional political space.
Social networks have a high potential to exercise covert large-scale
manipulative inuence on the consciousness of Internet users of a particular
state and beyond its borders in the presence of external stakeholders
competing with each other by improving the mechanisms of manipulation
themselves and increase the eectiveness of their application in the
information and communication environment.
Democratization is unthinkable without the development of network
technologies, innovative means of communication, and other attributes
of post-industrial society. The political processes taking place in today’s
transforming society remain unchanged in their underlying essence.
The possibilities of social networks have tied together on a single
communication platform most of the real political processes that are
unfolding on the Internet, from pre-election campaigning to the illegal
activities of marginal political groups.
An important characteristic of social networks is their interactivity,
through which the global network acts as an eective mechanism of
feedback between the authorities and society. The new technology opens
up great opportunities for participants in the political process.
778 Nataliia Likarchuk, Zoriana Velychko, Olha Andrieieva, Raisa Lenda y Hanna Vusyk
Manipulation as an element of the political process in social networks
Propaganda with the help of various Internet technologies and social
networks allows attracts more attention from the electorate, which in turn
entails an increase in the political activity of citizens.
The Internet makes it possible to organize elections at all levels of
government at a lower cost, a signicant factor in its development as a
means of political communication is the need to protect databases, ensuring
state security, and other issues of cybersecurity.
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Esta revista fue editada en formato digital y publicada
en enero de 2023, por el Fondo Editorial Serbiluz,
Universidad del Zulia. Maracaibo-Venezuela
Vol.41 Nº 76
