Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Derecho Público "Dr. Humberto J. La Roche"
de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
Publicación cientíca en formato digital
ISSN-Versión Impresa 0798-1406 / ISSN-Versión on line 2542-3185
Depósito legal pp 197402ZU34
ppi 201502ZU4645
Vol.40 N° 75
2022
Recibido el 09/11/22 Aceptado el 05/12/22
ISSN 0798- 1406 ~ De pó si to le gal pp 198502ZU132
Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas
La re vis ta Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas, es una pu bli ca ción aus pi cia da por el Ins ti tu to
de Es tu dios Po lí ti cos y De re cho Pú bli co “Dr. Hum ber to J. La Ro che” (IEPDP) de la Fa-
cul tad de Cien cias Ju rí di cas y Po lí ti cas de la Uni ver si dad del Zu lia.
En tre sus ob je ti vos fi gu ran: con tri buir con el pro gre so cien tí fi co de las Cien cias
Hu ma nas y So cia les, a tra vés de la di vul ga ción de los re sul ta dos lo gra dos por sus in ves-
ti ga do res; es ti mu lar la in ves ti ga ción en es tas áreas del sa ber; y pro pi ciar la pre sen ta-
ción, dis cu sión y con fron ta ción de las ideas y avan ces cien tí fi cos con com pro mi so so cial.
Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas apa re ce dos ve ces al año y pu bli ca tra ba jos ori gi na les con
avan ces o re sul ta dos de in ves ti ga ción en las áreas de Cien cia Po lí ti ca y De re cho Pú bli-
co, los cua les son so me ti dos a la con si de ra ción de ár bi tros ca li fi ca dos.
ESTA PU BLI CA CIÓN APA RE CE RE SE ÑA DA, EN TRE OTROS ÍN DI CES, EN
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Re vicyhLUZ, In ter na tio nal Po li ti cal Scien ce Abs tracts, Re vis ta In ter ame ri ca na de
Bi blio gra fía, en el Cen tro La ti no ame ri ca no para el De sa rrol lo (CLAD), en Bi blio-
gra fía So cio Eco nó mi ca de Ve ne zue la de RE DIN SE, In ter na tio nal Bi blio graphy of
Po li ti cal Scien ce, Re vencyt, His pa nic Ame ri can Pe rio di cals In dex/HAPI), Ul ri ch’s
Pe rio di cals Di rec tory, EBS CO. Se en cuen tra acre di ta da al Re gis tro de Pu bli ca cio-
nes Cien tí fi cas y Tec no ló gi cas Ve ne zo la nas del FO NA CIT, La tin dex.
Di rec to ra
L
OIRALITH
M. C
HIRINOS
P
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Co mi té Edi tor
Eduviges Morales Villalobos
Fabiola Tavares Duarte
Ma ría Eu ge nia Soto Hernández
Nila Leal González
Carmen Pérez Baralt
Co mi té Ase sor
Pedro Bracho Grand
J. M. Del ga do Ocan do
José Ce rra da
Ri car do Com bel las
An gel Lom bar di
Die ter Nohlen
Al fre do Ra mos Ji mé nez
Go ran Ther born
Frie drich Welsch
Asis ten tes Ad mi nis tra ti vos
Joan López Urdaneta y Nil da Ma rín
Re vis ta Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas. Av. Gua ji ra. Uni ver si dad del Zu lia. Nú cleo Hu ma nís ti co. Fa-
cul tad de Cien cias Ju rí di cas y Po lí ti cas. Ins ti tu to de Es tu dios Po lí ti cos y De re cho Pú bli co
“Dr. Hum ber to J. La Ro che”. Ma ra cai bo, Ve ne zue la. E- mail: cues tio nes po li ti cas@gmail.
com ~ loi chi ri nos por til lo@gmail.com. Te le fax: 58- 0261- 4127018.
Vol. 40, Nº 75 (2022), 431-456
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the
Aggravation of Language Conicts in the
Era of Globalization
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.4075.27
Andrii Ozhohan *
Nataliia Stratulat **
Pavlo Lysianskyi ***
Maiia Yurkovska ****
Olha Zaluzhna *****
Abstract
The language problem has always been serious in Ukraine
and often turned into an armed confrontation. This problem is
becoming particularly acute in view of the invasion of Ukraine by
the Russian Federation, one of the stated reasons for the «linguistic
inequality». The aim of the article is to determine the impact of
unregulated political lobbying by individuals or groups on the aggravation
of language conicts in Ukraine and compare it with other countries. The
research involved the following methods: analysis and synthesis, statistical
analysis, graphical methods, establishment of cause-eect relations and
cluster analysis. The novelty of the research is the study of the impact of
political lobbying on the development of language conicts in the region by
means of cluster analysis. The study established the relationship between
legislative regulation of lobbying, language conicts and corruption rates in
the country. In the conclusions, the analysis shows that the availability of
the institution of lobbying corresponds to lower rates of corruption and the
virtual absence of language conicts. The obtained results can be used by
the government to improve Ukrainian legislation.
Keywords: political lobbying; impact of lobbying; linguistic conicts;
armed conicts; globalization and corruption.
* PhD of philological sciences, Associate professor, Department of Literary Science of the National
University “Kyiv-Mohyla Academy”, faculty of Philology, Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, 04070, Kyiv, Ukraine.
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1433-723X
** PhD of philological sciences, Professor, Department of Legal Linguistics, National Academy of Internal
Aairs, 03035, Kyiv, Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7738-4311
*** Graduate student, Department of Political Theories of the National University "Odesa Law Academy",
65000, Odesa, Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3997-9335
**** PhD in Philology, Senior Lecturer, English Philology Department, The Faculty of Philology, Psychology
and Foreign Languages, Vasyl’ Stus Donetsk National University., 21021, Vinnytsia, Ukraine. ORCID
ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0002-4144
***** PhD in Philology, Associate Professor, English Philology Department, The Faculty of Philology,
Psychology and Foreign Languages, Vasyl’ Stu’s Donetsk National University, 21021, Vinnytsia,
Ukraine. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7929-6769
432 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
El impacto del cabildeo político en el agravamiento de
los conictos lingüísticos en la era de la globalización
Resumen
El problema del idioma siempre ha sido grave en Ucrania y, a menudo,
se convirtió en una confrontación armada. Este problema se está volviendo
particularmente agudo en vista de la invasión de Ucrania por parte de
la Federación Rusa, una de las razones declaradas por la “desigualdad
lingüística”. El objetivo del artículo es determinar el impacto del cabildeo
político no regulado de individuos o grupos en el agravamiento de los
conictos lingüísticos en Ucrania y compararlo con otros países. La
investigación involucró los siguientes métodos: análisis y síntesis, análisis
estadístico, métodos grácos, establecimiento de relaciones causa-efecto y
análisis de conglomerados. La novedad de la investigación es el estudio del
impacto del cabildeo político en el desarrollo de los conictos lingüísticos
en la región mediante análisis de conglomerados. El estudio estableció
la relación entre la regulación legislativa del cabildeo, los conictos
lingüísticos y los índices de corrupción en el país. En las conclusiones,
el análisis demuestra que la disponibilidad de la institución de cabildeo
corresponde a menores tasas de corrupción y la práctica ausencia de
conictos de lenguaje. Los resultados obtenidos pueden ser utilizados por
el gobierno para mejorar la legislación de Ucrania.
Palabras clave: cabildeo político; impacto del cabildeo; conictos
lingüísticos; conictos armados; globalización y
corrupción.
Introduction
National, racial, cultural dierences between representatives of
dierent peoples have always complicated communication between people
around the world. The beginning of the third millennium is marked by the
aggravation of inter-ethnic conicts, which is conrmed by the actualization
of this topic in the researches (Hasan, 2020; Albulescu, 2021; Singh, 2021;
Ciuriak, 2022; Peterson, 2022; Ahmadi et al., 2022; Mahdipour et al.,
2022). The language issue plays not the last role in many conicts, which
is connected, among other things, with the acceleration of globalization
processes.
Such conicts are related to the unequal rights of speakers of dierent
languages, which determines the status of a particular language in the
country. The main problem is that language conicts often turn into
an armed confrontation of a global nature, aecting the entire world
433
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 40 Nº 75 (2022): 431-456
community. Therefore, studying the peculiarities and nding ways to
resolve language conicts is an urgent issue and a relevant subject of many
researches (Rodriguez et al., 2019; Sazzad, 2021; Kádár et al., 2019).
The aggravation of language conicts is often associated with lobbying for
a particular party, political gure, dierent unions or groups of individuals.
They resort to the use of language dierences to exert inuence on citizens
in their eort to realize their interests. The goal can be the support of
the majority in a particular region, receiving more votes in elections, an
advantage over competitors, etc. However, legislatively regulated lobbying
as a legal institution rather brings benets to society. Lobbying can refer
both to the realization of the political goals of individual unions and to the
realization of public interests (Rubeš, 2021; Li et al., 2019; Waxman, 2012).
Ukrainian and foreign researchers conducted many studies on the
lobbying institution in dierent countries and the development of language
conicts. However, there are almost no works that would consider the
relation of these two issues. This is why establishing the inuence of
political lobbying on language conicts is a new and understudied topic
that requires further research.
The aim of the research is to study the inuence of political lobbying on
the aggravation of language conicts in Ukraine and in other countries. The
aim involved the fullment of the following research objectives:
• outline the main historical factors inuencing the current ratio of
speakers of dierent languages on the territory of Ukraine;
• describe statistics on the linguistic characteristics of the population
living in the territory of Ukraine;
• survey the legislative acts of Ukraine related to the language status;
• identify the impact of language conicts on the political and social
life of Ukrainians;
• identify problems related to the lobbying institution and its
legislative regulation in Ukraine;
• compare and establish the relationship between the manifestations
of language conicts and the lobbying of individuals, parties,
political gures, groups of persons;
• describe language conicts in other countries;
• establish the relationship between language conicts in the countries
and their lobbying-related legislative framework.
434 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
1. Literature review
Many researchers were engaged in studying the problems of lobbying and
language conicts. However, the literature survey enables establishing that
almost none of them connected these problems in one study. Researchers
mostly focus on certain aspects of lobbying or directly on language conicts.
Therefore, the impact of political lobbying on language conicts is uncertain
in the academic literature.
Separate aspects of lobbying were dealt with by Godny (2019) and
Krupnyk (2021). The researchers substantiated the need for legislative
regulation of lobbying in Ukraine in their work. A parallel with corruption
is also drawn: Godny (2019) actually equates modern Ukrainian lobbying
with corruption. Krupnyk (2021) notes that the legislative enshrinement of
lobbying must be preceded by increasing citizens’ trust in the government,
in particular, the reduced corruption.
Language conicts are an urgent problem in the works of Ukrainian
researchers because of their frequent aggravations. Panasenko (2018)
carries out a comprehensive study of the probability of the manifestation of
language conicts in individual countries.
The researcher divides the countries into three groups: the rst is
characterized by the existing language conicts (Ukraine is also included
in it). Language conicts are probable in the countries of the second group.
There are almost no conicts in the third group. The Panasenko’s (2018)
ndings are used in the article when assessing countries for the existing
language conicts in order to further conduct a cluster analysis.
Makarets (2022) also focuses on language conicts, in particular on
language narratives in the Russian-Ukrainian conict. The researcher
describes the term “narrative” as a modern myth, a means of imposing a
certain opinion on society. In this regard, Makarets (2022) also mentions
lobbying as one of the tools that the Russian Federation uses to inuence
the politics in Ukraine. Therefore, the said study is ideologically close to this
article, but it mentions lobbyism in passing only. The researcher does not
establish clear causal relationships between political lobbying and language
conicts.
Kotsur (2018) examines the language issue, russication of the
population, and ethnopolitical events in Ukraine in the early 2000’s. The
researcher notes that these events depended “on the political preferences
of the ruling elites on both sides of the border.” Judging by this statement,
Kotsur (2018) considers lobbying of a particular side of the conict as one
of the causes of language problems. However, the researcher does not use
the actual term “lobbyism (lobbying)”, dealing with the study of the ethnic
composition of the population of the regions of Ukraine and the historical
background of conicts.
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 40 Nº 75 (2022): 431-456
Some researchers of lobbying focus on both political and social aspects
that reect national interests. For example, Meng and Rode (2019), Brulle
(2018), Fisher and Nasrin (2021), Vesa et al. (2020) considered climate
policy lobbying in their works. Counts et al. (2021) covered aspects of health
care lobbying in the USA. In many studies, the USA is considered as an
example of successful implementation of legislative regulation of lobbying.
Some researchers, in particular, Samoilenko (2020), provide a number of
areas of implementation of the US lobbying-related experience in Ukraine.
Literature review enables identifying a “white spot” in research, which
is associated with the lack of determination of the impact of lobbying on
language conicts. Therefore, this research is relevant and reveals new
directions of academic studies.
2. Methods and materials
The research design is based on the objectives set to achieve the aim
of the study. The set objectives were divided into three groups, which
represent the research stages (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Research stages with the distribution of relevant objectives. Source:
authors.
The rst stage of the research involved outlining the key historical
features of the formation of the modern ratio of speakers of the Ukrainian
and Russian languages in Ukraine. It is noted that the Ukrainian language
is a completely independent language, not “derived” from Russian. On the
contrary, it is older than the latter. It was established that the majority of
Ukrainians (more than 80% in 2022) consider Ukrainian to be the only
state language. At the same time, it was also emphasized that language
436 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
conicts continue to arise. The invasion of the Russian Federation into
Ukraine, “justied”, among other things, by linguistic aspects, is the latest
and most tragic conicts for a long period of time.
The second stage of the research provides a comprehensive description
of the problems associated with the lobbying institution in Ukraine. It
was established that there is no separate law on lobbying in Ukraine, but
there have been numerous attempts to adopt it. However, those attempts
remained draft laws only. It is assumed that the legal regulation of lobbying
is hindered by a signicant corruption rate in the country. The position of
Ukraine in the ranking of countries according to the Corruption Perception
Index (122nd place out of 180) and the dynamics of this indicator are
presented.
An example of a situation where unregulated lobbying of the political
interests of a particular party and/or person led to revolutions is provided.
The matter is about the Orange Revolution and the Revolution of Dignity.
Both were connected with the undemocratic victory (the former) or the
tenure of the president of V. F. Yanukovych (the latter). His political activity
is connected with the lobbying of interests that went against national
interests and led to tragic consequences.
The third section involved a cluster analysis of a sample of countries
according to the indicators of the legislative regulation of lobbying, the
existing language conicts and the corruption rate. The studied countries
were divided into two groups: the rst is characterized by the absence of
legislative regulation of lobbying, the existing language conicts and high
corruption rates. The second group of countries had legislative regulation
of lobbying, almost no language conicts and low corruption rates. The
relationship between the three indicators dened in the analysis was proved
in this way.
The sample of countries was formed based on the availability of data
in the academic literature regarding the legislative regulation of lobbying
and language conicts in the countries. Information on the corruption rates
in countries is taken from Transparency International for 2021. Cluster
analysis was performed in the STATISTICA software package using the
k-means clustering for 24 observations (countries). The analysis identied
three indicators: the legislative regulation of lobbying, the existing language
conicts in the country, and the corruption rate. The indicators were rated
from 1 to 3, where 1 is the highest ranking, 2 is medium, and 3 is the lowest.
The following scientic methods were used in the study:
• analysis and synthesis in the study of the historical background of
language conicts and the legislative framework;
• statistical analysis for the interpretation of survey results and the
claims’ structure;
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 40 Nº 75 (2022): 431-456
• graphical methods for representing research results;
• establishing cause-and-eect relationships to determine the impact
of political lobbying on the aggravation of language conicts;
• cluster analysis to determine the relationship between the studied
concepts and the division of countries into groups.
3. Results
3.1. Historical background, current state and legislative
framework of language conicts in Ukraine
The language issue has long been one of the most acute in Ukraine.
The ethnic composition of the population of Eastern Ukraine and Russian
propaganda played their role in the language process. This resulted in a
signicant proportion of the Russian-speaking population of the respective
regions. However, Ukraine’s gaining of independence and the corresponding
language legislation contributed to the spread and strengthening of the
Ukrainian language. Every educated person in the Eastern regions knows
and can freely use the Ukrainian language, but does not always do that in
everyday life.
There is a signicant pool of evidence that the language of ancient Rus is
closer to the Ukrainian language. This means that the Ukrainian language
is older than Russian, therefore the myth that it comes from Russian can
be refuted. The reason for the communication of part of the population in
Russian is, for the most part, its prevalence in the region and family specics
only. The majority of the population, in particular, in the Eastern regions,
recognize Ukrainian as the only state language, as evidenced by population
surveys (Figure 2).
438 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
Figure 2. The results of a survey of Ukrainians regarding the status of the
Ukrainian language (created by the author according to Ratinggroup.ua. 2022.
The sixth national poll: The language issue in Ukraine))
Figure 2 shows that during 2014 to 2021, the majority of Ukrainians
believed that Ukrainian should be the only state language. In certain
periods, a signicant proportion of Ukrainian residents were disposed to
dene Russian as the ocial language in certain regions along with the
state Ukrainian language. However, the situation changed dramatically
in 2022 after the Russian Federation invaded Ukraine. More than 80%
of Ukrainians dene Ukrainian as the only state language. A considerable
proportion of the mostly young population of the country switched to
communication in Ukrainian only.
The functioning of the Ukrainian language as a state language is
guaranteed by the relevant Law of Ukraine (Verkhovna rada of Ukraine,
2022). Article 1(1) of the said Law stipulates that the Ukrainian language
shall be the only State (ocial) language in Ukraine. In 2022, amendments
were made to the relevant Law regarding of all Internet resources. If such
resources represent business entities registered in Ukraine, they must
have a Ukrainian-language version. The awareness and responsibility of
439
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 40 Nº 75 (2022): 431-456
Ukrainians regarding the current legislation is conrmed by their reaction
to violations of this Law. In the rst 10 days upon new requirements
entered into force, the secretariat received a record number of the Law
violations reports — 502 (Huivan, 2022). Figure 3 shows the structure of
these appeals by subject.
So, it can be concluded that the absolute majority of Ukrainians consider
Ukrainian as the only state language and respect the requirements of
language legislation. However, conicts about language continue to arise:
both interpersonal and those related to the violation of legal provisions. The
Russian invasion of the territory of Ukraine, one of the reasons for which is
also the language issue, is the most tragic result of such conicts.
Figure 3. The structure of appeals from Ukrainians about violations of language
legislation in the rst 10 days upon the introduction of new requirements
(created by the author according to (Huivan, 2022))
3.2. Problems of legislative regulation of lobbying in Ukraine
and its impact on language conicts
In the modern world, lobbying is an integral social institution in many
democratic states. It enables individuals and groups of individuals to
440 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
defend and promote their interests, thereby inuencing state policy. The
main advantage of the legislative provision of lobbying is the possibility of
including various social interests in the political process. So, the state policy
making is balanced and takes into account a wide range of social needs.
There is no law on lobbying in Ukraine, so it has no legal framework
in the country. But lobbying does exist in Ukraine, and is characterized
by excessive politicization, lack of strategies, unprofessionalism and
“uncivilized” forms. The government made a number of attempts to pass
the Law on Lobbying in Ukraine, but all proposals remained in draft status.
The latest attempt concerned the Draft Law “On Lobbying” No. 3059-1
dated 28 February 2020 (Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, 2020). However,
regulating the existing situation still remains a subject of active political
discussions.
Therefore, the situation with lobbying in Ukraine is not regulated by
legislation, which gives grounds to equate modern lobbying in Ukraine with
corruption. This state of aairs needs to be changed, because lobbying itself
can help reduce corruption in the country. Legislatively regulated lobbying
creates more transparent conditions for promoting the interests of certain
individuals or groups.
There is, however, an opinion that it is rst necessary to reduce corruption
in order to ensure the eectiveness of the lobbying institution. There is an
obvious contradiction: lobbying contributes to the reduction of corruption,
but it is necessary to rst reduce the manifestations of corruption for its
implementation. The “closed circle” can be broken through a balanced state
policy, the adoption of eective anti-corruption legislation and constructive
decisions regarding the establishment of the lobbying institution in Ukraine.
The issue of corruption in Ukraine remains one of the most urgent.
Calculations carried out by Transparency International indicate a worsening
corruption situation in Ukraine in 2021 (Table 1).
Table 1. The position of Ukraine and its closest neighbours in the list according
to the Corruption Perception Index
Corruption Perception
Index Changing of the position in the list Country Place
33 = Nepal 117
33 Philippines 117
33 = Zambia 117
32 Eswatini 122
32 Ukraine 122
441
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 40 Nº 75 (2022): 431-456
31 Gabon 124
31 = Mexico 124
31 Niger 124
31 Papua New
Guinea 124
Figure 4 shows the dynamics of the specied index for Ukraine for 2012 to 2021.
Source: authors.
Figure 4. Dynamics of the Corruption Perception Index in Ukraine (created by
the author based on Transparency International (2021).
The analysis of Table 1 and Figure 3 conrms that the situation in
Ukraine regarding corruption is complex and continues to deteriorate. This
is why the improvement of anti-corruption legislation plays a decisive role
in the establishment of the lobbying institution in Ukraine.
Legislative provision of lobbying helps not only to reduce corruption,
but also to balance the interests of dierent unions. It was mentioned that
the language issue is acute in Ukraine, and its solution also depends on the
realization of the interests of certain groups of people. On the one hand,
the absolute majority of Ukrainians dene Ukrainian as the state language,
as was established. On the other hand, certain political parties or actors
practice using language contradictions to achieve their goals.
This contradiction could be resolved through the introduction of
legislative regulation of lobbying. It will enable the representatives of the
442 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
people to speak on behalf of the citizens of Ukraine and defend the national
language interests. But in the form in which lobbying exists in Ukraine
only enables using language as a tool to achieve the goals of individuals or
groups. Moreover, those interests may run counter to national interests.
The 2004 elections are an example of a situation where a particular party
and/or individual used language as a tool to achieve their goals. The pro-
Russian candidate V. F. Yanukovych tried to win the favour of the Eastern
regions by raising the status of the Russian language on the territory of
Ukraine. Yanukovych won according to preliminary results, which was
followed by a series of protests called the Orange Revolution.
A repeat second round of elections was held, in which V. A. Yushchenko
won. In 2010, Yanukovych ran for oce once again and won the next
presidential elections of Ukraine. His rule ended with another revolution —
the Revolution of Dignity, as a result of which the President was removed
from oce. One of the main reasons for the Revolution of Dignity was abuse
by the current authorities and the shooting of protesters.
This situation is an example of how protectionism on the part of
another state and unregulated lobbying led to tragic consequences and the
establishment of a criminal system. This proves the direct impact of lobbying
on the aggravation of language conicts in the country and determines the
actualization of the issue of its legislative regulation.
3.3. Language conicts in dierent countries and their
relationship with legislative regulation of lobbying
In view of the foregoing, it is interesting to draw a parallel between
the existence of legislative regulation of lobbying and language conicts
in dierent countries. It is appropriate to conduct a cluster analysis for
individual countries for this purpose. The purpose of the analysis is to
determine the relationship between the legislative regulation of lobbying
and the existing language conicts in individual countries. It is proposed
to supplement this analysis with data on the corruption rates in the studied
countries.
Table 2 shows the raw data for the cluster analysis. The rst column
contains data on the existence of legislative regulation of lobbying. The
data are presented in the form of estimates, where 1 – there is legislative
regulation of lobbying in the country; 2 – there are laws that regulate certain
aspects of lobbying; 3 – there is no appropriate legal regulation. The second
column contains estimates regarding the existing language conicts, where
1 – language conicts are actually absent; 2 - language conicts are possible;
3 – existing language conicts.
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The third column shows the places of countries in the Transparency
International ranking by the corruption rates. The countries for which
there are ocial data on the legislative regulation of lobbying and language
conicts were selected for analysis.
It is worth noting that it becomes obvious that language conicts are
more characteristic of countries with a lack of legal regulation of lobbying
and high corruption rates already at the rst stage of the analysis.
Table 3 shows the correspondence between the selected indicators and
their estimates. Regarding the ranking by the corruption rate, the countries
were conventionally divided into three groups. The highest score – 1 – is
assigned to representatives of the group with the lowest corruption rate.
These countries are ranked in the Transparency International ranking from
1 to 60. A score of 2 is assigned to countries ranked from 61 to 120, 3 — from
121 to 180.
Table 2. Raw data for cluster analysis.
Country The existence of
legislative regulation
of lobbying
The existence
of language
conicts
Rank according
to the Corruption
Perception Index
USA 1 1 27
Canada 1 2 13
Japan 1 1 18
Austria 2 1 13
France 2 1 22
Netherlands 2 1 8
Italy 3 1 42
Sweden 1 1 4
Poland 1 1 42
Kazakhstan 3 2 102
Ukraine 3 3 122
Germany 2 1 10
Belgium 1 3 18
Estonia 3 3 13
Ireland 1 3 13
Moldova 3 3 105
Russian Federation 3 3 136
444 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
India 3 2 85
Brazil 1 1 96
Finland 1 1 1
Israel 1 1 36
Latvia 3 2 36
Czech Republic 1 1 49
Switzerland 1 1 7
Source: prepared by the author based on Panasenko (2018), Krupnyk (2021),
Moshenets (2019), Yarovoi (2017), Transparency International (2021) and Moser (2020).
Table 3. Correspondence between indicators and their estimates
State of legislative
regulation of lobbying Score The existence
of language
conicts
Score Ranking by
the corruption
rate
Score
The legislative
regulation of lobbying
exists
1 Language
conicts exist 3 1-60 1
There are laws
regulating only certain
aspects of lobbying
2 Language
conicts are
possible
2 61-120 2
There is no appropriate
legal regulation, but
active discussions
are ongoing or draft
legislative acts are
being discussed or the
lobbying institution
does not attract enough
attention of political
gures and citizens
3 There are
almost no
language
conicts
1 121-180 3
Source: authors.
Figure 5 contains the cluster analysis input data entered into the
STATISTICA software environment. As the Figure shows, the “best”
scores (1) are marked in green. Such scores correspond to the existence of
legislative regulation of lobbying, the absence of language conicts and a
low corruption rate. Average scores (2) are marked in yellow, low (3) — in
pink.
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
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Figure 5. Initial data for cluster analysis
The results of the cluster analysis are shown in Figures 6-12.
Figure 6. Means for the clusters.
446 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
Figure 7. Euclidean distances between clusters
Figure 8. Analysis of variance.
Figure 9. Descriptive statistics for Cluster 1.
Figure 10. Descriptive statistics for Cluster 2.
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
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Figure 11. Cluster 1 members.
Figure 12. Cluster 2 members.
448 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
The analysis of Figures 6-12 shows that, according to the graph of means,
the division into 2 clusters was optimal in this case. Cluster 1 (Figure 6),
which includes Ukraine, is characterized by:
• lack of legislative regulation of lobbying (average score 3);
• high degree of language conicts (2.57);
• the medium corruption rate (2), which varies between countries.
• Cluster 2 is mostly characterized by:
• the existence of legislative regulation of lobbying (1.35);
• small manifestations of language conicts (1.29);
• low corruption rate (1.06).
Figure 7 shows the Euclidean distances between clusters, and Figure
8 represents the results of the analysis of variance. The smaller the intra-
group variance and the larger the inter-group variance, the more qualitative
the clustering. The F and p parameters show that the results are signicant.
Descriptive characteristics by clusters are additionally shown in Figures 9
and 10. Figures 11 and 12 represent the countries that fall into each of the
clusters.
The results of the analysis conrm the assumptions about the relationship
between the lack of legal regulation of lobbying, high corruption rates and
language conicts in the region. This determines the need to improve anti-
corruption legislation and legislative support for lobbying in Ukraine.
Regarding the latter, it is possible to use the lobbying institution in the
USA as an example for building the lobbying process in Ukraine. It is one
of the most developed in the world, which is in line with the high value of
democracy in the United States. Figure 13 shows US lobbying spending for
1998 to 2021.
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 40 Nº 75 (2022): 431-456
Figure 13. Lobbying spending in the USA for 1998 to 2021 ($ billion) (prepared
by the author based on Statista (2021).
Figure 13 shows the rapid growth of lobbying spending from 1998 to
2009. However, the period of 2009 to 2021 is characterized by a certain
stabilization of lobbying spending at approximately $ 3.2-3.7 billion. Figure
14 shows US lobbying spending by industry.
450 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
Figure 14. Lobbying spending in the USA in 2021 by industry (prepared by the
author based on Statista (2021).
The pharmaceutical and healthcare products industries are characterized
by the largest expenditures on lobbying. The production of electronics
and equipment ranks second, and insurance ranks third. The developed
lobbying institution in the USA corresponds to a fairly low corruption rate
(27th place out of 180 according to Transparency International, 2021) and a
high level of ensuring the democratic rights of citizens.
4. Discussion
The article discussed the background and current state of language
conicts in Ukraine in detail. It was determined that the absolute majority
of Ukrainians consider Ukrainian the only state language, but linguistic
conicts continue to arise. Neighbouring states, as well as lobbying for
individual persons or parties, play a signicant role in this process.
The interests of the latter may dier from national ones, and language in
these cases is used as a tool to achieve their own goals. In many respects, the
451
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 40 Nº 75 (2022): 431-456
problem of unregulated lobbying implies the lack of the Law on Lobbying
in Ukraine. The study proved that the lobbying institution exists in many
modern democratic states.
Such states are characterized by lower corruption rates and almost no
language conicts. The article substantiates that the improvement of anti-
corruption legislation and further approval of the legal status of lobbying
can contribute to solving the language problem for the better.
It was noted in the study that lobbying helps individuals or groups to
advocate and advance their interests by inuencing public policy. Godny
(2019) provides a similar denition, noting that political lobbying is a
system and practice of realizing such interests. The researcher includes
speeches and hearings, personal meetings, other interactions, as well
as shaping citizens’ opinions, etc. as methods of lobbying along with the
development of draft laws. According to him, lobbying actually equals to
corruption in its current state, without legal support. Krupnyk (2021) also
considered the problem of corruption in the context of the introduction of
the lobbying institution. So, the assumption made in the article regarding
the importance of solving the corruption problem is conrmed in the works
of researchers.
Panasenko (2018) leaves out the lobbying issue, detailing the history of
language conicts in dierent countries in the context of globalization. The
researcher notes that the settlement of language conicts is a national issue
and, accordingly, should be settled at the state level. While agreeing with
this opinion, it is appropriate to note that state regulation is important, but
the resolution of language conicts depends on citizens in many respects.
This is why shaping public opinion, as well as increasing the role of national
identity are also important. Lobbying for national interests, among other
things, is important for those purposes, but this issue is not covered in
Panasenko’s (2018) research.
Makarets (2022) and Kotsur (2018) also studied language conicts. The
researchers identify the destabilizing inuence of the Russian Federation
as the main cause of language conicts in Ukraine. The goal of the Russian
Federation is to slow down Ukraine’s movement towards the European
Union. It was noted in this research that the Russian Federation uses
dishonest lobbying methods to realize its interests on the territory of
Ukraine. Kotsur’s (2018) research does not focus on lobbying, but Makarets
(2022) denes lobbying as one of the methods of Russian interference in
Ukrainian politics.
In general, speaking about the study of the inuence of lobbying on
language conicts, it should be noted that these concepts are almost not
connected with each other in the works of researchers. This creates certain
limitations for research, while forming a new direction for further research.
452 Andrii Ozhohan, Nataliia Stratulat, Pavlo Lysianskyi, Maiia Yurkovska y Olha Zaluzhna
The Impact of Political Lobbying on the Aggravation of Language Conicts in the Era of Globalization
Therefore, the study of the relationship between the legally approved
lobbying, language conicts and the corruption rate conducted in the article
has high academic signicance and brings novelty to science.
Many researchers dealt with the problems of lobbying and language
conicts. It was mentioned that the impact of lobbying on language conicts
has been poorly studied, but researchers reveal its impact on other aspects
of social life in detail. In the current understanding of a democratic society,
lobbying is not a means of achieving personal goals, enriching individuals,
or realizing the interests of individual businesses, etc.
It can contribute to a real improvement in the quality of life of people,
individual sectors of the economy and the country as a whole. For example,
Meng and Rode (2019) examine the spending and other aspects of climate
policy lobbying. Brulle (2018), Fisher and Nasrin (2021), Vesa et al. (2020)
also study the impact of lobbying on climate policy. Counts et al. (2021)
presented aspects of health care lobbying in the USA. This research also
found that the United States have the highest healthcare lobbying spending.
This article provides a proposal regarding the use of US lobbying
experience in Ukraine. In this regard, Samoilenko (2020) notes that the
following measures should be the main directions of implementation:
• publication of lists of meetings of both government ocials and
representatives of corporations that have connections with the
lobby;
• refusal to promote the interests of unregistered lobbyists,
cancellation of their privileges;
• increased attention to manifestations of conicts of interest;
• publication of decision-making documentation;
• facilitating the registration of lobbyists who promote civil rights
(Samoilenko, 2020).
Therefore, further research can focus on determining the role of
political lobbying in resolving armed conicts, developing directions for the
introduction of legislative regulation of lobbying.
Conclusions
The relevance of the issue of the escalation of conicts of dierent
origins around the world is beyond doubt. Many of them develop into
armed confrontations, in particular, this applies to language conicts. The
language aspect has always been one of the most acute and controversial
For Ukraine. In 2022, more than 80% of Ukrainians consider Ukrainian the
state language, but the problem of language conicts still exists.
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This is related, among other things, to the lobbying of the political
interests of certain groups of persons or individuals, in particular, pro-
Russian politicians. There is no lobbying institution in Ukraine, which is the
reason for using “uncivilized” lobbying methods by individual politicians.
The research by country proves that the existence of legislative regulation
of lobbying corresponds to a smaller number of language conicts. Besides,
a successfully functioning lobbying institution is closely related to the
reduction of corruption in the country. The countries with lower corruption
rates have legal regulation of lobbying and almost no language conicts.
The scientic signicance of the research results is the established
relationship between the legislative regulation of lobbying, language
conicts and the corruption rate. The novelty is the determined impact of
political lobbying on language conicts, because these issues have not been
covered in the academic literature in a relationship.
The results of the study can be applied by the government to actualize
the issues of improving anti-corruption legislation and adopting the Law
on Lobbying. Prospects for further research include determining the role of
political lobbying in the resolution of armed conicts, as well as determining
directions for the introduction of legislative regulation of lobbying.
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