Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Derecho Público "Dr. Humberto J. La Roche"
de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
Esta publicación cientíca en formato digital es continuidad de la revista impresa
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197402ZU34
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Vol.40 N° 72
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Recibido el 14/09/2021 Aceptado el 19/12/2021
ISSN 0798- 1406 ~ De pó si to le gal pp 198502ZU132
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co, los cua les son so me ti dos a la con si de ra ción de ár bi tros ca li fi ca dos.
ESTA PU BLI CA CIÓN APA RE CE RE SE ÑA DA, EN TRE OTROS ÍN DI CES, EN
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Vol. 40, Nº 72 (2022), 423-434
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Status obligations of a “ag state”:
counteraction to unauthorized
broadcasting from the high seas
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.4072.24
Serhii Kuznietsov *
Abstract
The investigation analyzes the status obligations of a “ag
state” that are related to the suppression of the illegal use of “ag
ships”. The purpose is to investigate the modern international
legal regime of the suppression of an unauthorized transmission
from the high seas and, at the same time, to prepare the doctrinal
foundations for dening the complete complex of “ag State”
obligations. In this regard, the subject is the international
conventions that constitute the regime for the suppression of
unauthorized broadcasting, which is carried out by ships on the
high seas, adopted at one time by international organizations the
League of Nations and the United Nations. The methodology consists of
systematic and formal-legal methods, as well as methods of analysis and
synthesis. The conclusions stress that States should take all appropriate
measures with a view to achieving the results of the erasure. It should
therefore be noted that these provisions are dedicated, inter alia, to “ag
vessels” and “ag States”.
Keywords: ag state; maritime law; ag vessel; oshore; unauthorized
transmission.
* Candidate of Political Sciences, Director of the Seafarers Training Centre, Ukraine: www.seafarer.
od.ua. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8607-6414
424
Serhii Kuznietsov
Status obligations of a “ag state”: counteraction to unauthorized broadcasting from the high seas
Obligaciones de estatus de un “Estado del pabellón”:
supresión de una transmisión no autorizada desde alta mar
Resumen
En la investigación se analiza las obligaciones de estatus de un “Estado
de bandera” que están relacionadas con la supresión del uso ilegal de
los “buques de bandera”. El propósito es investigar el régimen legal
internacional moderno de la supresión de una transmisión no autorizada
desde alta mar y, al mismo tiempo, preparar los fundamentos doctrinales
para denir el complejo completo de las obligaciones del “Estado del
pabellón”. En este sentido, el tema son las convenciones internacionales
que constituyen el régimen de supresión de la radiodifusión no autorizada,
que se lleva a cabo por barcos en alta mar, adoptado en un momento por
organizaciones internacionales, en particular, la Liga de las Naciones y
las Naciones Unidas. La metodología consta de los métodos sistemático
y formal-legal, así como métodos de análisis y síntesis. Las conclusiones
destacan que los Estados deben adoptar todas las medidas apropiadas con
miras a lograr los resultados de la supresión. Por lo tanto, se debe señalar
que estas disposiciones están dedicadas, entre otras cosas, a los “buques de
pabellón” y a los “Estados del pabellón”.
Palabras clave: estado del pabellón; derecho marítimo; buque de
bandera; alta mar; transmisión no autorizada.
Introduction
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 prescribes that vessel
have the nationality of the State whose ag they are entitled to y and that
there must exist “a genuine link” between a “ag State” (a State which
entitles a vessel to y its ag) and the “ag vessels” (the vessels which are
entitled to y the States’ ag). But the Convention has neither denition of
the term “genuine link” as a legal link “legal rights – legal obligations”, nor
denes the full complex of a State’s and of the vessels’ rights and obligations.
The rst beginnings of British pirate radio appeared in 1960. The Dutch
station Veronica was then broadcasting in English from Dutch territorial
waters. To do this, within the radio station there was a separate British
division called CNBC. Veronica’s English-language broadcasts never gained
wide popularity due to signicant signal and distance problems between
Dutch waters and the British coast. Veronica stopped broadcasting in
English, as the radio was doing well in Holland, and the management
wanted to free up time for advertising. Veronica took the rst step: broadcast
illegally from the ship and broadcast rock. Thus, began the radio revolution.
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Vol. 40 Nº 72 (2022): 423-434
It is generally accepted worldwide that the unauthorized broadcasting
from high seas (hereinafter referred to as “UBHS”) pose a serious adversely
aect the economic, cultural and political foundations of society.
The suppression of “UBHS” is based on the rules of international
law which, inter alia, are prescribed by conventions, agreements and
declarations of the United Nations and Council of Europe. Provisions of
abovementioned international documents form the modern international
legal regime of the suppression of “UBHS”. Thus, it will be natural to analyze
the core international conventions which are related to the matter. So, the
purpose of our study is to analyze the legal norms and legal rules, which
are related to the regulation of contemporary problems of the suppression
of “UBHS”, namely denitions, legal characteristics and legal methods of
suppression, prospects of application and the implementation of treaties,
international measures and procedures adopted to its review or monitor.
Many scholars have classied the suppression of “UBHS” as an
intervention in (withdrawal from) the principle of the “freedom of
navigation in the high seas”, that means the intervention in the exclusive
jurisdiction of a “ag State” which it exercises over the “ag vessels” in the
high seas – ocean spaces which are situated beyond the national sovereignty
of any State (Kolodkin et al., 1984; Parkinson, 1991). But our proposition
is to classify this suppression as the straggle against the illegal use of the
“ag vessels” and the obligations of the suppression of “UBHS” as the status
obligations of a “ag State”, which forms an integral part of the “genuine
link” conception.
1. Theoretical Framework or Literature Review
There are real preconditions for the active development of socio-
dangerous phenomenon in contemporary world. Guattari (1984) points
out that “the lines of escape combine with the objective lines of “de-
territorialization of the system” to create an irrepressible “aspiration for
new areas of freedom”. One example of such an escape line is the “free radio
stations”. Technological development, and in particular the miniaturization
of transmitters and the fact that they can be put together by amateurs,
“encounters” a collective aspiration for some new means of expression.
There are some researches, in which they have investigated the regulation
of “radio piracy” in the USA (Bender, 1988; White, 2011; Misiroglu, 2015),
in Britain (Chapman, 1992) and Meers (2021) declare that “while there
are almost no Belgian pirate radio stations left today”, history shows that
despite the odds, a new wave of clandestine radios can conquer the air any
time.
426
Serhii Kuznietsov
Status obligations of a “ag state”: counteraction to unauthorized broadcasting from the high seas
Additionally, Arend (2009) notes: “When I teach the law of the sea, we
always spend some time discussing the heinous crimes that are prohibited
on the high seas. Some of them are quite familiar – piracy, slave trade,
narcotics tracking. But there is one outlawed activity that is normally not
so familiar to the students – pirate broadcast”. Robertson (1982) proposed
the application of international legal concepts in order to bring pirate radio
stations under state control.
The provision of the “UNCLOS’82”, which prescribes that all States
shall cooperate in the suppression of “an unauthorized broadcasting
from the high seas” (hereinafter referred to as “UBHS”) “have become
a new in international law of the sea” (Balobanov et al., 1986) and the
legal international problems related to the suppression of “UBHS” were
investigated by Kovalev (2003), Byers (2004), Kolodkin (Kolodkin et
al., 2007), Peters (2014); Dubner and Arias (Dubner & Arias., 2017), Ong
and Shatat (Ong et al., 2021); Proelß (2021), Williams (2021), Kuznietsov
(2020) and many others. Nevertheless, certain marine scientists have not
paid due attention to the matter (Kolodkin et al., 1984; Blishchenko, 1988;
Parkinson, 1991; Shchipzov, 1995; Shemiyakin, 2002; Skaridov, 2006).
Further, Antzelevich (2013) have researched international legal
problems of modern merchant shipping and have not found among them
the problem of suppression of “UBHS”.
Pavlova, Polunina, Tkalych, Mankovskyi, and Zubair (2020) studied
the problems of the obligations of states in the context of environmental
security of the oceans, which can also be attributed to the «genuine link»
conception. Thus, we see the possibility and importance of studying
the modern international legal regime of suppression of “UBHS” as
the suppression of illegal use of the “ag vessels” and the obligations of
suppression as the status obligations of a “ag State”.
2. Methodology
The methodology used are systematic and formal-legal methods, as well
as methods of analyses and synthesis.
We applied the system method to show the place of the norms of certain
international conventions, as well as multilateral and bilateral, in the
modern international legal regime of the counteraction to the “UBHS”. In
this sense, we have considered that “UBHS” is an illegal use of the “ag
vessels” and there are the status obligations of a “ag State”, inter alia, to
suppress the abovementioned using of ships, which are the obligations to
form an integral part of the “genuine link” conception. Thus, the purpose
of our study was to investigate modern international legal regime of the
suppression of “UBHS”.
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Vol. 40 Nº 72 (2022): 423-434
It was advisable to start considering from the studying of the groundwork
laid by the United Nations and the Council of Europe in the matter of this
article. We handled a formal legal method to demonstrate the content of
the conventions with were adopted under the aegis of these international
organizations. The study conrmed that eradication of “UBHS” is a collective
responsibility of all States and that, to that end, coordinated action within
the framework of international co-operation is necessary.
Thus, the “UBHS” is an international criminal activity, the suppression
of which demands urgent attention and the highest priority, what, in its
turn, demands to improve international co-operation. Related initiatives in
the suppression of “UBHS” started to take form of multilateral international
agreements comparatively not so long ago, but the true eectiveness
of the treaties can be assessed by the extent to which the States Parties
to these treaties apply its provisions at the national level. The research
method used in this research is using normative legal research methods
and it can be concluded that the regulations regarding the suppression of
“UBHS” is contained, inter alia, in Part VII. “High seas” Article 109 of the
“UNCLOS’82”.
Methods of analysis and synthesis are used to generalize and draw
conclusions about results of the study. Every State is free to use the high
seas but is not allowed to take illegal actions or violate the law, both national
law and international law, which in its application are often violated by
countries in the world. In particular, the implementation of international
treaties, which “generally refers to both the national measures adopted by
States and international measures and procedures adopted to review or
monitor those national actions” (Weissbrodt & DottridgE, 2002).
3. Results and Discussion
• Preliminary notes
Related anti-slavery initiatives started to take form of the international
agreements comparatively long ago. But, although slavery has existed since
ancient times the 1815 For the purposes of this article, we will understand
the term “obligation” – as a legal duty and the term “status” – as a person’s
legal standing or capacity – the term, which derives from Roman law, in
which “it referred to a person’s freedom, citizenship, and family rights”
(Martin, 1994).
The term “high seas” means “all parts of the sea that are not included in
the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State” (United Nations, 1958.
Article 1) and “No State may validity purport to subject any hart of the high
seas to its sovereignty” (“UNCLOS’81”. Part VII. Article 89. “Invalidity of
claims of sovereignty over the high seas”).
428
Serhii Kuznietsov
Status obligations of a “ag state”: counteraction to unauthorized broadcasting from the high seas
A “ag State” means “a State which entitles a vessel to y its ag” or “a
State hose ag a ship ies or entitled to y” and the “ag vessels” means
“the vessels which are entitled to y the States’ ag and “ship” means any
self-propelled sea-going vessel used in international seaborne trade for
transport of goods, passengers, or both” (United Nations, 1986).
Article 2. “Denitions”); and “there must exist “a genuine link” between
the State and the ship” (“UNCLOS’82”. Part VII “High seas”. Article 91.
“Nationality of ships”).
• The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982
Each state that has ratied “UNCLOS’82” receives certain subjective
rights, legal obligations, and responsibilities and, consequently, legal status
as a “participating state”. It should be noted that “UNCLOS’82” should
not change the content of the rights and obligations of the participating
countries contained in other documents.
Article 109, Part VII, UNCLOS’82, stipulates that the states of the world
must cooperate in order to suppress unauthorized broadcasting from the
high seas. The term “unauthorized broadcasting” means broadcasting to
a wide audience, contrary to international rules, from a ship or from an
installation on the high seas, other than distress signals.
Anyone who engages in unauthorized broadcasting may be arrested
and prosecuted; any vessel conducting unauthorized broadcasting may be
arrested; any broadcasting device engaged in unauthorized broadcasting
may be conscated. But the above measures can be applied only by the
state:
1) Which has jurisdiction.
2) On the high seas, and;
3) in accordance with Article 110 of the Convention.
The states that have jurisdiction to take the above measures are the ag
state of the ship; the state of registration of the installation; the state of
which the person is a citizen; any State where a broadcast signal may be
received; or any State where permitted radio communications are subject
to interference.
Article 110 of UNCLOS’82 provides that warships with appropriate
jurisdiction that encounter a foreign vessel engaged in unauthorized
broadcasting have the right to detain such a vessel if such a vessel does not
have international immunity.
The “UNCLOS’82” is “the rst general multilateral international
agreement (the agreement of universal kind)”, which has the provisions
related to the struggle against the “UBHS”; “namely the “UNCLOS’82”
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Vol. 40 Nº 72 (2022): 423-434
brings most important contribution” in the struggle against the
unauthorized broadcasting (Kolodkin et al., 2007). Before the adoption of
the “UNCLOS’82” even the “UNCHS’1958” had no provisions, which were
dedicated to the matter (see: “UNCHS’1958”. Article 22).
It must be noted that certain researchers declared that the crimes,
which are committed in the high seas and connected with the “UBHS”,
“are not so numerous and have not vital menace to the states’ safety at
sea” (Romashev, 2001, p. 53), but the states, which citizens received the
unauthorized radiotransmissions, classify them as menace to their national
interests. Usually, the states understand that the actions mentioned above
could make obstacles to the accepted distribution of the frequencies, as well
as could, inter alia, lead to uncontrolled use of radiofrequencies, which are
dedicated to sending of distress signals.
• International Radio Regulations
Radio Regulations was adopted by the International Telecommunication
Union (hereinafter referred to as the “ITU”) on the International Radio
Conference in 1947. “Radio Regulations” means the Radio Regulations
annexed to, or regarded as being annexed to, the most recent International
Telecommunication Convention which is in force at any time (“SOLAS”.
CHAPTER IV. “Radiocommunications”. Part A. “GENERAL”. Regulation 2.
“Terms and denitions”, paragraph 1.11).
There are three core sectors developed in the “ITU”: Radiocommunication
Sector, Telecommunication Standardization Sector and Telecommunication
Development Sector (Convention of the International Telecommunication
Union. Chapter I. “Functioning of the Union”. Sections 5, 6, 7). For the
purpose of the above instruments of the “ITU”, the following terms shall
have the meanings dened below: “mobile service” - radiocommunication
service between mobile and land stations, or between mobile stations;
“radiocommunication” - telecommunication by means of radio waves
(where the term “radiocommunication” also includes telecommunications
using electromagnetic waves, propagated in space without articial guide
and where “radio waves” are electromagnetic waves, propagated in space
without articial guide (ANNEX. “Denition of Certain Terms Used in
this Convention and the Administrative Regulations of the International
Telecommunication Union”).
• The European Agreement for the Prevention of Broadcasts
Transmitted from Stations Outside National Territories of
1965
The European Agreement for the Prevention of Broadcasts Transmitted
from Stations Outside National Territories of 1965 (hereinafter referred
to as the “UAPPS’1965”) and usually referred to as “Prevention of Pirate
Stations”, was adopted in Strasburg 22.01.1965 under the aegis of the
European Economic Council.
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Serhii Kuznietsov
Status obligations of a “ag state”: counteraction to unauthorized broadcasting from the high seas
The member States of the Council of Europe have adopted the
“UAPPS’1965”, considering that the Radio Regulations annexed to the
International Telecommunication Convention prohibit the establishment
and use of broadcasting stations on board ships, aircraft or any other oating
or airborne objects outside national territories and also the desirability of
providing for the possibility of preventing the establishment and use of
broadcasting stations on objects axed to or supported by the bed of the
sea outside national territories.
The “UAPPS’1965” is concerned with stations which “transmit broadcasts
intended for reception or capable of being received, wholly or in part, within
the territory of any Contracting Party, or which cause harmful interference
to any radio-communication service operating under the authority of a
Contracting Party in accordance with the Radio Regulations”.
Conclusions
The results found highlight that an unauthorized broadcasting from high
seas is an illegal use of the “ag vessels” and there are the status obligations
of a “ag State”, inter alia, to suppress the abovementioned using of ships,
which are the obligations to form an integral part of the “genuine link”
conception.
The modern international legal regime of the suppression of an
unauthorized broadcasting engaged in by vessels on the high seas is
constructed by the norms of certain international conventions, which was
adopted under the aegis of the United Nations and the League of Europe, as
well as of other international agreements, multilateral and bilateral; in this
sense the purpose of our study was to investigate some of these documents.
The study shows that with the documents, which was investigated,
concrete rules and articles were dedicated upon with the purpose to the
suppression of an unauthorized broadcasting from high seas engaged in by
vessels on the high seas. Moreover, all appropriate measures with a view
to achieve the results of the suppression are to be taken by all States. So,
we want to note that these provisions are dedicated, inter alia, to the “ag
vessels” and, thus to the “ag States”.
It must be noted that certain researchers declared that the crimes,
which are committed in the high seas and connected with the “UBHS”,
“are not so numerous and have not vital menace to the states’ safety at
sea” (Romashev, 2001, p. 53), but the states, which citizens received the
unauthorized radiotransmissions, classify them as menace to their national
interests. Usually, the states understand that the actions mentioned above
could make obstacles to the accepted distribution of the frequencies, as well
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 40 Nº 72 (2022): 423-434
as could, inter alia, lead to uncontrolled use of radiofrequencies, which are
dedicated to sending of distress signals.
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Esta revista fue editada en formato digital y publicada
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