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de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
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Esta publicación cientíca en formato digital es continuidad de la revista impresa
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197402ZU34
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Vol.39 N° 71
2021
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ISSN 0798- 1406 ~ De pó si to le gal pp 198502ZU132
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Vol. 39, Nº 71 (2021), 387-404
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
The Role of Public Authorities in
Combating Gender-Based Violence
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.3971.21
Tetiana Havronska *
Iryna Krasnolobova **
Valerii Bortniak ***
Dmytro Bondar ****
Antonina Boiko *****
Abstract
The objective of the research was to identify the factors that
contribute to the increase in rates of gender-based violence
and to clarify the role of the authorities in the ght against this
problem. To achieve this objective, the following methods were
used: statistical analysis, hypothetical-deductive model, factor
analysis, generalization and analogy and correlation analysis.
It was found that there is a negative relationship between the
level of violence against women and the economic situation, the level of
gender inequality, the level of development of social norms and the level of
gender development (only for violence against women who are not intimate
partners). A positive relationship between the level of gender development
and the level of domestic violence was demonstrated. Factors that directly
negatively aected rates of gender-based violence were identied: cultural,
traditional, religious beliefs about the status of women in society; authorities’
restrictions on the rights of individuals associated with the COVID-19
pandemic. The authorities’ tools to counter gender-based violence were
identied. The perspective of further research is the identication of the
social and legal aspects of this global phenomenon.
Keywords: gender inequality; gender development; violence against
women; gender-based violence; domestic violence.
* PhD in Law, Senior lecturer of the Department of Law and Branch Legal, Faculty of Political Science
and Law, National Pedagogical Drahomanov University. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-
6213-9188
** Postgraduate student, of the Department of social and humanitarian policy, Kharkov regional institute
of public administration, National academy of public administration attached of the oce of the
President of Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4786-0310
*** PhD in Law, Associate Professor of Department of of Public and Private Law, Faculty of Law, V.I.
Vernadsky Taurida National University. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1285-966X
**** PhD in Public Administration, Associate Professor of Department of Public Administration , Leonіd
Yuzkov Khmelnytskyi University of Management and Law, PhD in Public Administration. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5687-8910
***** PhD in Public Administration, Associate Professor of of Labor, Land and Commercial Law, F Leonіd
Yuzkov Khmelnytskyi University of Management and Law. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
0142-0624
388 Tetiana Havronska, Iryna Krasnolobova, Valerii Bortniak, Dmytro Bondar y Antonina Boiko
The Role of Public Authorities in Combating Gender-Based Violence
El papel de las autoridades en la lucha contra la
violencia de género
Resumen
El objetivo de la investigación fue identicar los factores que
contribuyen al aumento de las tasas de violencia de género y aclarar el
papel de las autoridades en la lucha contra esta problemática. Para lograr
este objetivo se utilizaron los siguientes métodos: análisis estadístico,
modelo hipotético-deductivo, análisis factorial, generalización y analogía y
análisis de correlación. Se encontró que existe una relación negativa entre
el nivel de violencia contra las mujeres y la situación económica, el nivel
de desigualdad de género, el nivel de desarrollo de las normas sociales y
el nivel de desarrollo de género (solo para violencia contra mujeres que
no son parejas íntimas). Se demostró una relación positiva entre el nivel
de desarrollo de género y el nivel de violencia doméstica. Se identicaron
factores que afectaron directamente de manera negativa las tasas de
violencia de género: creencias culturales, tradicionales, religiosas sobre
la condición de la mujer en la sociedad; restricciones de las autoridades
a los derechos de las personas asociadas con la pandemia de COVID-19.
Se identicaron las herramientas de las autoridades para contrarrestar
la violencia de género. La perspectiva de una mayor investigación es la
identicación de los aspectos sociales y legales de este fenómeno mundial.
Palabras clave: desigualdad de género; desarrollo de género; violencia
contra la mujer; violencia de género; violencia
doméstica.
Introduction
Gender-based violence is one of the most common human rights
violations in the world (Elsherief et al., 2017). According to the United
Nations Population Fund, one in three women worldwide experiences
physical or sexual violence during their lifetime (UNFPA, 2016; Autiero
et al., 2020). The victims of gender-based violence are mostly women and
girls. The various factors that contribute to the increase in gender-based
violence rates must become a priority issue that needs to be addressed by
the authorities.
An important tool in resolving any crisis situation in all public-private
spheres is their legal settlement at the international and national levels.
Authorities are empowered to protect the rights of vulnerable groups, to
develop and improve mechanisms to combat violations of their rights.
In particular, it concerns the prevention of an increase in gender-based
389
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 387-404
violence rates and the elimination of existing factors that contribute to
violence.
1. Literature review
There are several approaches to understanding gender-based violence in
the literature. A narrow understanding of gender-based violence is dened
by Wirtz et al. (2018) as a general term for any harm caused against human
will and resulting from gender inequality. Gender inequality is identied
as the root cause of gender-based violence. In addition, the main causes of
gender-based violence are related to beliefs, norms, attitudes and structures
that promote and/or tolerate gender discrimination and gender inequality
(Nordby, 2018).
A broad approach is proposed by Johnson (2004) as gender-driven
violence. The majority of victims are women and girls (although men may
also be victims of violence), covering racial, ethnic, class, age, economic,
religious and cultural diversity. Gender-based violence exists in dierent
places: at home, in society, in public institutions. There are ve types of
gender-based violence: sexual violence; physical violence; emotional and
psychological violence; negative traditional practices; socio-economic
violence (Johnson, 2004).
The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women interprets
gender-based violence as “any form of violence that causes or may cause
physical, sexual or psychological harm or suering to women, including
threats of such acts, forced arbitrary deprivation of freedom, regardless of
whether they are in the state or in private life” (United Nations, 1993).
Gender-based violence is a man-caused crisis that exists in various
forms, including oine, through physical and sexual violence, and in
today’s world, gender-based violence occurs through the Internet through
harassment and trolling. An innovative tool to combat gender-based
violence is to involve Internet users in the joint ght against gender-based
violence in social media (Karuna et al., 2016). Combating gender-based
violence on the Internet requires the involvement of technology companies
that are Internet providers to prevent the use of networks by those who
intend to commit violence. One of the key tasks of the state is to involve
Internet providers in eectively solving the problems of Internet violence
in their networks. Combating gender-based violence is a complex task that
requires joint action by the public, private sectors, and society as a whole
(Suzor et al., 2018).
Globally, gender-based violence increased during the COVID-19
pandemic. COVID-19 and past pandemics have led to an increase in intimate
390 Tetiana Havronska, Iryna Krasnolobova, Valerii Bortniak, Dmytro Bondar y Antonina Boiko
The Role of Public Authorities in Combating Gender-Based Violence
partner violence (physical, intellectual, economic and psychological);
increased the number of sexual harassment on the Internet and oine,
intimidation of persons on the grounds of sex; sexual exploitation and
abuse, especially among women and girls; human tracking for prot
from exploitation, especially of girls via the Internet; child, early and forced
marriage in order to reduce family expenses; ill-treatment of persons with
disabilities and gender non-conforming people; damage to the female
genitals; attacks on female healthcare workers; human tracking (USAID,
2021).
The factors that cause gender-based violence are interrelated. The
evidence is the Covid-19 pandemic, which has led to restrictions on
movement, social exclusion, and increased nancial stress, which could
have led to increased gender-based violence rates. In such circumstances,
the government’s opposition to gender-based violence is reduced to
expanding hotlines and information exchange; funding shelters and other
options for the safe accommodation of victims of gender-based violence;
expanding access to services for victims of gender-based violence; limiting
risk factors associated with violence; modications of family law and justice
(Guedes et al., 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed many societal inequalities based
on gender, class, race, and access to health care. State and local authorities
have introduced innovative and coordinated counteraction to gender-based
violence, which aims to address the systemic causes of violence. It is reduced
to ensuring the continuity of existing services and creating new strategies
to improve the communication system. Increasing gender inequalities in
a pandemic have contributed to increased gender-based violence rates. As
a result, it is necessary to develop a multi-level and coordinated response
to gender-based violence, its cultural and social causes and to eliminate its
consequences (Polischuk and Fay, 2020).
The crisis is increasing the vulnerability of women and girls due to the
lack of access to sources of social support, healthcare services, social and
other services. The consequences of violence are growing as economic
tensions in the state facilitate the concealment of the perpetrator, which
reduces the ability to eectively combat gender-based violence. The United
Nations Oce for Disaster Risk Reduction has clearly recognized the need
to better integrate gender perspectives into crisis preparedness (John et al.,
2020). Legal and forensic medicine must work to achieve two main goals:
the assessment of gender-based violence; risk assessment after isolation
from the abuser (Acosta, 2020).
Legislation criminalising violence against women as a tool to combat
gender-based violence codies women’s right to live without violence.
Legislative sanctions for violence against women can be a deterrent to the
development of gender-based violence. New international law and national
391
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 387-404
law recognise women’s right to life without violence. National legislation
in most parts of the world not only prohibits and criminalises violence, but
also provides mechanisms to support victims of gender-based violence and
their families. States have a duty to protect women from violence and to
enact laws to prevent and punish gender-based violence (Klugman, 2017).
Research objectives
The aim of the research paper is to identify the factors that contribute
to the increased gender-based violence rates and to establish the role of the
authorities in combating gender-based violence.
Research objectives of the article
1. Identify countries with the largest and smallest human development,
gender development, gender inequality.
2. Identify factors that may aect the level of gender-based violence in
identied countries.
3. Analyse statistical indicators of factors that may aect the level of
gender-based violence in the studied countries.
4. Investigate the impact of established factors on the level of gender-
based violence in the studied countries.
5. Find out the role of the authorities in combating gender-based
violence.
2. Research materials and methods
The main approach in the study of the role of public authorities in
combating gender-based violence was to identify the countries with
the highest, medium, and lowest human development index, gender
development index and gender inequality index. We believe that these
indices are a reection of the eectiveness of the government’s functions
of ensuring respect for the gender rights of individuals. This approach was
chosen in order to fully explore the role of the authorities in combating
gender-based violence. The formula for determining the arithmetic mean
was used in the study:
where Х1 – Gender Inequality Index (Gender Development Index) for
2005, Х2 – for 2010, Х3 – for 2015, Х4 – for 2017, Х5 – for 2018, Х6 – for
2019, n – number of indicators.
392 Tetiana Havronska, Iryna Krasnolobova, Valerii Bortniak, Dmytro Bondar y Antonina Boiko
The Role of Public Authorities in Combating Gender-Based Violence
The study of the role of the authorities in combating gender-based
violence was carried out using statistical analysis to identify countries
with the highest and lowest human development, gender development and
gender inequality indices. Statistical analysis involved the indicators of the
Gender Social Norms Index, the number of cases of gender-based violence
against women in the studied countries and regions of the world, the level
of economic development of the studied countries, which is reected in
GDP per capita.
The direction of the research was determined through the hypothetical-
deductive method, which was reduced to the identication of factors that
may aect the level of gender-based violence, as well as the role of public
authorities in combating gender-based violence.
A study was conducted through the correlation analysis to establish
the relationship: between the Gender Development Index and violence
against women ever experienced in 2005 — 2019 in Germany, Australia,
USA, Japan, Ukraine, South Africa, India; between the Gender Inequality
Index and violence against women ever experienced in 2005 — 2019 in the
studied countries; between GDP per capita and the gender development
index for 2000 — 2019. The study used the formula of correlation analysis:
where x1 — Gender Inequality Index and x2 – violence against women
ever experienced, r – linear correlation coecient.
The method of factor analysis, generalisation and analogy identied the
factors that aect the number of cases of gender-based violence.
The research used the most signicant scientic works that reect the
development of scientic thought in the eld of gender-based violence and
ways to combat gender-based violence for the period 1993 to 2021. This
period of the study was chosen as the one that most clearly reects the role
of the authorities in combating gender-based violence.
The paper analyses the following indicators:
– Gender Development Index (GDI) 2000 – 2019 reected in United
Nations Development Programme.
– Gender Inequality Index (GII) 2000 – 2019 reected in United
Nations Development Programme.
– Violence against women ever experienced, (% of female population
ages 15 and older) 2005 – 2019 reected in UN Women.
393
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 387-404
– Gender Development Index (GDI) and Violence against women ever
experienced (% of female population ages 15 and older) in regions
reected in United Nations Development Programme, UN Women.
– Gender Social Norms Index (GSNI) 2005-2014 reected in United
Nations Development Programme.
– GDP per capita (current US$) 2000 – 2019 reected in The World
Bank.
3. Results
The Gender Development Index measures the gap between three
components: education, life expectancy and income of men and women,
taking into account the impact of human development. The Gender
Development Index reects the inuence of the authorities on gender
equality, ensuring the well-being and prosperity of all social groups. In
order to achieve the goals, set in the study, we select countries with a high,
medium and lowest index of human development during 2000 — 2019.
Table 1. Table of correlation of the CSOCI components
HDI
Rank Country 2000 2005 2010 2015 2017 2018 2019
6 Germany 0.943 0.957 0.960 0.968 0.969 0.968 0.972
8 Australia 0.961 0.970 0.976 0.975 0.976 0.976 0.976
17 USA 0.987 0.992 0.996 0.994 0.995 0.993 0.994
19 Japan 0.950 0.955 0.960 0.971 0.976 0.977 0.978
74 Ukraine 0.992 1.004 1.012 0.997 1.000 1.000 1.000
114 South Africa 0.959 0.959 0.975 0.982 0.981 0.983 0.986
131 India 0.736 0.761 0.782 0.809 0.817 0.818 0.820
Source: United Nations Development Programme, 2020.
Thus, the countries with the highest human development index include:
Germany and Australia, the medium — the United States and Japan, the
lowest — South Africa and India (Table 1). At the same time, the highest
level of the gender development index in the studied countries during
2000 — 2019 was recorded in Ukraine, and the lowest level of the gender
development index — in India.
394 Tetiana Havronska, Iryna Krasnolobova, Valerii Bortniak, Dmytro Bondar y Antonina Boiko
The Role of Public Authorities in Combating Gender-Based Violence
The Gender Inequality Index is an indicator that reects inequality
between women and men in three areas: reproductive health, empowerment,
and the labour market.
Table 2. Gender Inequality Index (GII)
HDI
Rank Country 2000 2005 2010 2015 2017 2018 2019
6 Germany 0.130 0.117 0.097 0.076 0.084 0.084 0.084
8 Australia 0.160 0.139 0.138 0.110 0.104 0.103 0.097
17 USA - 0.263 0.259 0.238 0.229 0.211 0.204
19 Japan 0.135 0.146 0.121 0.121 0.103 0.100 0.094
74 Ukraine 0.388 0.379 0.334 0.288 0.273 0.270 0.234
114 South Africa 0.470 0.464 0.439 0.419 0.414 0.411 0.406
131 India - 0.624 0.590 0.550 0.525 0.512 0.488
Source: United Nations Development Programme, 2020.
There is a positive trend of decline in the Gender Inequality Index in all
countries from 2000 to 2019. At the same time, violence against women
aged 15 and older remains high (Table 3).
Table 3. Violence against women ever experienced, (% of
female population ages 15 and older)
HDI Rank Country intimate partner Non-intimate partner
2005-2019 2005-2019
6 Germany 22.0 7.0
8 Australia 22.8 10.0
17 USA - -
19 Japan - -
74 Ukraine 26.0 5.0
114 South Africa 21.3 -
131 India 28.8 -
Source: UN Women, 2019.
395
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 387-404
Between 2005 and 2019, women were more likely to be victims of
intimate partner violence than non- intimate partners, indicating a high
level of domestic violence.
In order to establish the relationship between the Gender Development
Index and violence against women ever experienced and between the
Gender Inequality Index and violence against women ever experienced, it is
necessary to determine the arithmetic mean of these indices in the studied
countries for 2005 - 2019, as the arithmetic mean violence against women
ever experienced is provided for 2005 —2019. The arithmetic mean of the
Gender Inequality Index in Germany is 0.090, Australia — 0.115, the United
States — 0.234, Japan — 0.114, Ukraine — 0.296, Africa — 0.425, India —
0.548. In order to establish the relationship between the Gender Inequality
Index and violence against women ever experienced, it is necessary to
conduct a correlation analysis of the indicators in Tables 2 and 3.
The linear correlation coecient between the Gender Inequality Index
and violence against women ever experienced (non-intimate partner),
excluding the USA and Japan, South Africa and India, is -0.636; between
the Gender Inequality Index and violence against women ever experienced
(intimate partner), excluding the United States and Japan, is -0.727.
Thus, a negative correlation was established between the index of
gender inequality and the amount of violence against women during 2005-
2019. Therefore, the lower the Gender Inequality Index, the more cases of
violence against women. In order to establish the interaction between the
Gender Development Index and violence against women ever experienced,
it is necessary to calculate the arithmetic mean of the Gender Development
Index. The arithmetic mean of the Gender Development Index for 2005
— 2019 is: Germany — 0.966, Australia — 0.975, USA — 0.994, Japan —
0.970, Ukraine — 1.002, Africa — 0.978, India — 0.801.
The linear correlation coecient between Gender Development Index
and violence against women ever experienced during 2005 — 2019 in the
studied countries (intimate partner), excluding the USA and Japan, is
0,603, nonintimate partner, excluding the USA and Japan, South Africa
and India, is 0.731.
Thus, there is a positive correlation between the gender development
index and the number of cases of violence against women (intimate
partner), and a negative correlation between the gender development index
and the number of cases of violence against women (non-intimate partner).
Therefore, gender development reduces the incidence of domestic violence
against women.
In Australia, there has been an increase in sexual assault as a form of
domestic violence in 2020. The statistics is as follows: in 2017 — 105.1,
2018 — 105.3, 2019 — 105.9 cases per 100,000 people were recorded, while
396 Tetiana Havronska, Iryna Krasnolobova, Valerii Bortniak, Dmytro Bondar y Antonina Boiko
The Role of Public Authorities in Combating Gender-Based Violence
in 2020 the number of cases of violence increased by 13% compared to 2019
(107.1) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021). The reason for the increase
domestic violence rates is the pandemic caused by Covid-19. The decision
of the authorities to restrict the movement of the population led to a long
stay of people indoors, resulting in increased number of cases of domestic
violence.
Analysing the indicators of the gender development index in some
regions of the world (Table 4), the highest index during 2000 — 2019 was
found in Latin America and the Caribbean — 0.957 - 0.978, and the lowest
— in South Asia — 0.734 - 0.824. At the same time, Latin America and the
Caribbean have the highest percentage of violence against women who are
not intimate partners and the lowest percentage of violence against women
who are intimate partners.
Table 4. Gender Development Index (GDI) and Violence
against women ever experienced (% of female population ages
15 and older) in regions
Gender Development Index (GDI)
Violence against
women ever
experienced (% of
female population ages
15 and older)
nonintimate
partner intimate
partner
Regions 2000 2005 2010 2015 2019 2005-2019
Arab States 0.807 0.821 0.835 0.853 0.856 - -
East Asia and
the Pacic 0.916 0.930 0.948 0.959 0.961 3.2 -
Europe and
Central Asia 0.924 0.930 0.952 0.952 0.953 3.4 27.9
Latin America
and the
Caribbean 0.957 0.971 0.977 0.986 0.978 31.5 23.8
South Asia 0.734 0.765 0.790 0.818 0.824 3.0 31.0
Sub-Saharan
Africa 0.857 0.857 0.879 0.887 0.894 2.2 31.4
Source: United Nations Development Programme, 2020. UN Women, 2019.
Domestic violence is observed in the regions of the world where the
largest percentage of the population professes Islam — East Asia, Southeast
397
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 387-404
Asia, Africa. The regions of the world where the majority of the population
professes Christianity have a lower percentage of violence against women
being intimate partners — Latin America, Europe and Central Asia.
The Gender Social Norms Index is made by persons who have at least
one gender bias, those who do not have prejudices and those who have
prejudices in the areas of politics, economics, education and physical
integrity (Table 5).
Table 5. Gender Social Norms Index (GSNI)
GSNI
(share of
people with
at least 1
bias)
Share of
people with
no bias
Share of people biased by dimension
Political Economic
Educational Physical
integrity
2005-
2009
2010-
2014
2005-
2009
2010-
2014
2005-
2009
2010-
2014
2005-
2009
2010-
2014
2005-
2009
2010-
2014
2005-
2009
2010-
2014
Germany 59.11 62.6 40.89 37.4 26.43 26.59 26.94 30.91 14.32 15.78 39.9 44.68
Australia 52.23 46.24 47.77 53.76 32.37 32.48 26.05 18.06 7.53 4.09 26.05 20.93
USA 60.63 57.31 39.37 42.69 42.23 39.9 19.41 14.81 7.81 6.54 38.84 34.57
Japan 72.08 68.81 27.92 31.19 46.44 46.87 39.69 41.79 18.34 16.21 37.04 26.28
Ukraine 87.28 86.53 12.72 13.47 60.6 62.63 58.18 57.69 32.47 18.23 50.8 56.61
South
Africa
93.32 96.32 6.68 3.68 61.33 75.56 55.22 57.06 19.98 38.8 81.04 88.8
India 91.4 98.28 8.6 1.72 62.12 64.1 68.32 69.91 38.63 35.24 75.31 88.38
Source: United Nations Development Programme, 2020.
It is established that India, where the highest level of domestic violence
is recorded, has the highest percentage of gender-biased people for 2010 —
2014, the lowest percentage of people without prejudice (for 2010 - 2014),
the highest percentage of people who are most biased in politics (2005 —
2009), economics (2005 — 2014), education (2005 — 2009). The lowest
level of domestic violence is observed in South Africa, however this country
has a high level of gender bias and a low percentage of people without
gender bias, the highest percentage of gender bias in politics (2009—2014),
education (2010—2014), physical integrity (2005 — 2014).
Thus, domestic violence does not depend on gender bias of the
population. The well-being of the population depends on the economic
development of the state. Based on the conclusion about the relationship
between the gender development index and the number of cases of violence
against women (intimate partners), we consider it appropriate to study the
398 Tetiana Havronska, Iryna Krasnolobova, Valerii Bortniak, Dmytro Bondar y Antonina Boiko
The Role of Public Authorities in Combating Gender-Based Violence
impact of economic development of the studied countries on the gender
development index.
Table 6. GDP per capita (current US$)
Country 2000 2005 2010 2015 2017 2018 2019
Germany 23,635 34,507 41,531 41,086 44,552 47,810 46,467
Australia 21,679 33,999 52,022 56,755 54,027 57,354 55,057
USA 36,334 44,114 48,467 56,839 60,062 62,996 65,297
Japan 38,532 37,217 44,507 34,524 38,386 39,159 40,246
Ukraine 653 1,826 2,965 2,124 2,640 3,096 3,659
South Africa 3,032 5,383 7,328 5,734 6,131 6,372 6,001
India 443 714 1,357 1,605 1,981 2,005 2,099
Source: The World Bank, 2020.
The linear correlation index between GDP per capita and the gender
development index in the studied countries during 2000 — 2019 is equal
to: 2000 — -0.895, 2005 — -0.842, 2010 — -0.853, 2015 — -0.765, 2017 —
-0.772, 2018 — -0.791, 2019 — -0.757. Thus, there is a negative correlation
between economic development and the gender development index.
4. Discussion
Vulnerable groups of the population are a category of people, the
provision and observance of whose rights is a changing phenomenon in
crisis situations in the country and the world.
In general, the role of the authorities in combating gender-based
violence is divided into three stages: prevention, response and elimination
of the consequences of gender-based violence.
Prevention of gender-based violence, as the main stage of counteraction,
is to prevent and eliminate factors inuencing the increase in the number of
cases of gender-based violence.
The study showed that the level of gender inequality does not aect the
number of cases of violence against women, and a study of the social norms
index found that the level of domestic violence does not directly depend on
the level of gender bias in general and in certain areas of society.
399
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Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 387-404
Therefore, we do not agree with the rationale that gender-based violence
depends on gender norms — that is, social norms about the corresponding
roles and responsibilities of men and women (Heise et al., 2002). The level
of violence against women and girls depends on the religion of the majority
of the population in a given country. The highest level of domestic violence
is established in those regions of the world where the largest percentage
of the population professes Islam — East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa. A
lower percentage of violence against women (intimate partners) is observed
in those regions where the majority of the population is Christian — Latin
America, Europe and Central Asia. Therefore, we agree that patriarchal
society is the direct cause of gender-based violence, as patriarchy establishes
such socio-cultural values and norms of society that subordinate women,
determine and dictate their place and behaviour (Hadi, 2017).
The positive correlation between the gender development index and the
number of cases of violence against women (intimate partner), the negative
correlation between the gender development index and the number of cases
of violence against women (non-intimate partner) is proved. Thus, gender
development reduces the incidence of violence against women (intimate
partners).
Therefore, we unequivocally believe that eective prevention of gender-
based violence among adolescents and young adults is a key strategy to
reduce gender-based violence (Crooks et al., 2018). Authorities are required
to develop programmes and strategies to prevent gender-based violence to
address the root causes and factors of violence against women and girls at
the population level (Perrin et al., 2019), as most cases of gender-based
violence can be prevented by eective preventive measures (Oliveira et al.,
2018; Rituerto-González et al., 2019). Prohibiting the coverage of intimate
information in the form of images, videos or text in the media will reduce
the risk of violence against women (Russo and Pirlott, 2006).
It is established that the economic development of the population does
not aect the level of gender development, and accordingly the level of
gender-based violence.
The current Covid-19 pandemic is a factor that negatively aects the
dynamics of gender-based violence: social isolation, increased Internet use,
reduced access to support services and nancial stress have led to increased
domestic violence rates. We agree that the failure to implement methods
to prevent the risk of gender-based violence in all sectors and activities
in crisis situations may create a risk of gender-based violence (USAID,
2021). Therefore, as the COVID-19 pandemic continues to negatively aect
women’s lives, there is a need to prioritise their right to health and safety.
It is also important to note that some women remain nancially dependent
on those who have abused them. Therefore, there is a need to implement
community programmes, especially for psychological support and shelter,
especially for victims of abuse (Bingol and Ince Yenilmez, 2020).
400 Tetiana Havronska, Iryna Krasnolobova, Valerii Bortniak, Dmytro Bondar y Antonina Boiko
The Role of Public Authorities in Combating Gender-Based Violence
An important step in combating gender-based violence is to eliminate
the consequences of violence against women and prevent their recurrence.
Therefore, in the face of government restrictions on the rights of individuals
to overcome the Covid-19 pandemic, access to justice for survivors of
gender-based violence needs to be increased, support for women victims
of violence and prevention of re-violence shall be provided (Morrison et al.,
2007).
Conclusions and recommendations
The authorities are the main actors that can directly inuence the
dynamics of gender-based violence by addressing the factors that increase
the incidence of violence against women and girls. The countries with
the highest, middle and lowest levels of human development, gender
development and gender inequality were found to include Australia,
Germany, the United States, Japan, Ukraine, South Africa and India. The
study found a negative relationship between the level of violence against
women and the economic situation in the country, the level of gender
inequality, the level of social norms and the level of gender development
(only for violence against women non-intimate partners) in the studied
countries during 2000 - 2019. It was found that the factors that negatively
aect the amount of gender-based violence are: restriction by the
authorities of the rights of persons associated with the Covid-19 pandemic;
cultural, traditional, religious beliefs about the status of women in society.
The relationship between the level of gender development and the level of
domestic violence has been proven.
The authorities are the main actors that can directly inuence the
dynamics of gender-based violence by addressing the factors that increase
the incidence of violence against women and girls.
The countries with the highest, medium and lowest levels of human
development, gender development and gender inequality were found to
include Australia, Germany, the United States, Japan, Ukraine, South
Africa and India.
The study found a negative correlation between the level of violence
against women and the economic situation of the country, the gender
inequality level, the level of social norms and the level of gender
development (only for violence against women non-intimate partners) in
the studied countries during 2000 — 2019. It was found that the factors
that negatively aect the number of cases of gender-based violence are:
authorities’ restriction of the rights of persons associated with the Covid-19
pandemic; cultural, traditional, religious beliefs about the status of women
in society. The relationship between the gender development level and the
domestic violence level was proved.
401
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Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 387-404
The pandemic caused by the Covid-19 mass morbidity has led the
authorities to impose a number of restrictions, some of which have aected
the movement of the population. Prolonged stay at home has led to
increased domestic violence rates. Accordingly, the authorities are obliged
to develop an action plan in crisis conditions to prevent and eliminate the
consequences of gender-based violence.
Authorities have several levers of inuence in the ght against gender-
based violence, which are reduced to legislative regulation (international
and national), prevention of gender-based violence, including through
the media, educating young people, balancing religious views, culture,
and traditions with respect to the opposite sex or gender-nonconforming
people, support and development of family institutions, social, medical and
nancial support for victims of gender-based violence.
The prospect of further research is to cover social and legal aspects that
aect the level of gender-based violence.
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