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Vol. 39, Nº 68 (Enero - Junio) 2021, 243-250
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Heuristic Potential of Sammy Smooha
Ethnic Democracy Concept
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.3968.15
Vladimir Dubrovin *
Yulia Solovarova **
Aigul Zaripova ***
Aidar Zakirov ****
Abstract
The article next to the hermeneutic methodology examines
the key aspects of a special model of political regime: the «ethnic
democracy» of S. Smooha, which is based on the idea of the
development of an ethnic nation in a state. According to this
author’s point of view, the main idea of this form of stability is
the absolute control of the ethnic majority over the minority. It examines
the reasons for the emergence of «ethnic democracy», the characteristics
of its implementation in practice and the conditions of stability. When this
model is implemented in practice, the State pursues the objective of central
ethnic-national development in the country, as well as its isolation from
other ethnic groups. Under the concept of «ethnic democracy» the ethnic
minority is granted limited rights, the state constantly monitors its scope,
considering the interests of the «main» nation. It is concluded that the
implementation of the «ethnic democracy» model deliberately violates the
right to self-identication of a part of the population (ethnic minority),
therefore «ethnic democracy» is an element of state policy that addresses
inequality or a desire for total assimilation.
Keywords: ethnic democracy; ethnic majority; ethnic minority; ethnic-
national elite; ethnocracy.
* Vladimir Dubrovin Kazan Federal University, Russia, ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2060-
5675. Email: Vladimir.Dubrovin@kpfu.ru
** Yulia Solovarova, Kazan National Research Technological University, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.
org/0000-0003-0982-6776. Email: solovarova1@mail.ru
*** Aigul Zaripova, Kazan Federal University, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5810-
5986. Email: aigulrzaripova@gmail.com
**** Aidar Zakirov, Kazan Federal University, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9843-
9075. Email: azr12353@gmail.com
244
Vladimir Dubrovin, Yulia Solovarova, Aigul Zaripova y Aidar Zakirov
Heuristic Potential of Sammy Smooha Ethnic Democracy Concept
Potencial heurístico del concepto de democracia
étnica de Sammy Smooha
Resumen
El artículo próximo a la metodología hermenéutica examina los aspectos
clave de un modelo especial de régimen político: la «democracia étnica» de
S. Smooha, que se basa en la idea del desarrollo de una nación étnica en un
estado. Según el punto de vista de este autor, la idea principal de esta forma
de estabilidad es el control absoluto de la mayoría étnica sobre la minoría.
Se examinan las razones del surgimiento de la «democracia étnica», las
características de su implementación en la práctica y las condiciones de
estabilidad. Cuando se implementa este modelo en la práctica, el Estado
persigue el objetivo de un desarrollo central étnico-nacional en el país, así
como su aislamiento de otros grupos étnicos. Aunque bajo el concepto de
«democracia étnica» a la minoría étnica se le otorgan derechos limitados,
el estado monitorea constantemente su alcance, tomando en cuenta los
intereses de la nación «principal». Se concluye que la implementación
del modelo de «democracia étnica» viola deliberadamente el derecho a
la autoidenticación de una parte de la población (minoría étnica), por lo
tanto, la «democracia étnica» es un elemento de política estatal que encubre
la desigualdad o el deseo de asimilación total.
Palabras clave: democracia étnica; mayoría étnica; minoría étnica; élite
étnico-nacional; etnocracia.
Introduction
Due to the accession of Eastern Europe countries and the former Soviet
Union countries to the European Union, the institutions of the “old”
Europe faced the problems of “new members”, which are based on ethnic
stereotypes. Excessive politicization of ethnic stereotypes on the part of
the ruling elite in these states has a destructive effect on the consolidation
of society and leads to the confrontation between the ethnic majority
and minority. In the course of this confrontation, the elements of ethnic
nationalism are sharpened. It is believed that the ethnic state was a stage
in the formation of a civil one (Volkogonova and Tatarenko, 2001). That
is, before the nations of the West became civil, they were ethnic (Vakhitov,
2012), which was based on cultural values.
It is also believed that “liberal democracies grew on the substrate
of ethnic cleansing, although outside the colonies this took the form of
organized coercion rather than mass murder” (Mann, 2005: 590).
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 68 (Enero - Junio 2021): 243-250
Thus, the implementation of a liberal democratic state classical model,
based on multiculturalism, has been postponed indenitely. At the same
time, the understanding is ripening that if “one ethnic group dominates in
political decision-making, and the other is concentrated on the periphery,”
then this confrontation can develop into ethnic wars in these countries
(Kharitonova, 2016).
1. Materials and Methods
The article uses the method of non-standardized analysis of textual
materials regarding the heuristic potential of “ethnic democracy” model
by S. Smooha. Within the framework of this method, the search for
expert judgments concerning the “ethnic democracy” model is carried out
according to the principle of “refutation - support” of the model elements.
The scholars focusing on “ethnic politics” were selected as experts. The
selection of texts was carried out according to the principle of “refutation
- support” coincidence as the elements of this model, which underlie the
statements of experts. The use of this method makes it possible not only
to x the content of experts’ opinions regarding the elements of “ethnic
democracy” model, but also allows to analyze the heuristic potential of the
“ethnic democracy” model by S. Smooha.
2. Research Results
An opportunity to avoid the problems of multiculturalization of a
multinational society that were experienced by such countries as Great
Britain and Australia is one of the projects of the so-called limited democracy
in the form of “ethnic democracy” model.
A special model of the political regime - “ethnic democracy” - is based on
the formation of one ethnic nation in one state. This concept, in its essence,
justies the dominance of the titular nation and discrimination against all
other ethnic groups.
This model, like the term “ethnic democracy” itself, was proposed by
Professor S. Smooha in the book published in 1989 (Smooha, 1989). He
believes Israel is a classic example of “ethnic democracy.” In addition to
Israel, he mentions such states as Slovakia, Northern Ireland, Poland, and
the Baltic states among the countries implementing the model of “ethnic
democracy” (Smooha, 2002).
From the point of view by S. Smouha:
Ethnic democracy combines the expansion of civil and political rights for all
permanent residents with the legalized ethnic domination of the majority group.
The ethnic-national elite controls the state of society and uses the nation to achieve
its national interests and provides its members with the most favorable conditions
(Smooha, 2001: 5).
246
Vladimir Dubrovin, Yulia Solovarova, Aigul Zaripova y Aidar Zakirov
Heuristic Potential of Sammy Smooha Ethnic Democracy Concept
However, according to the fair remark by M.Kh. Farukshin, “... ethnic
democracies constitutionally place “one ethnic group - the indigenous
nation - in a privileged position over all other groups within the borders
of the state”, which unambiguously indicates their ethnocratic nature”
(Farukshin, 2015: 46).
S. Smouha identies the following reasons for the emergence of “ethnic
democracy”: 1) an independent state revived in a certain territory; 2) the
presence of a threat (real or perceived) to the nation; 3) commitment of the
ethnic majority to democracy, which can be ideological or pragmatic; 4)
control over ethnic minority.
Based on the conditions, the ethnic majority can vary the methods of
government from democracy to its restriction. If the minority is disunited,
then the ethnic majority builds “ethnic democracy.” If the minority is
consolidated, then the ethnic majority uses the authoritarian methods of
government.
A number of conditions ensure the stability of “ethnic democracy”.
1) The main ethnic nation constitutes a demographic majority;
therefore, it can manage democratic processes on its own without
the political support of “non-mainstream” groups.
2) The “minority” population should be a minority, so it can be ignored.
3) The main core of an ethnic nation must be committed to democracy,
if there are few supporters, then “ethnic democracy” is degenerating.
4) The status of the main ethnic nation can be obtained by the persons
belonging to this nation, namely those who lived in their homeland
and the representatives of the diaspora who returned to their
homeland.
5) The remaining representatives of the ethnic majority who make
up the diaspora living in other states should actively lobby for the
interests of their nation.
6) The representatives of other ethnic groups receive the status of
immigrants, so that they can be controlled more easily through the
restrictions in their rights and suppress the interference of their
historical homeland.
7) The international community should not interfere in the internal
affairs of the country, which improves the chances of “ethnic
democracy” for survival (Smooha, 2001).
S. Smooha denes eight features that are the main elements of his model
of “ethnic democracy”:
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 68 (Enero - Junio 2021): 243-250
The rst element is the dominance of ethnic nationalism, which asserts
the absolute, exclusive, and indivisible right of the main “ethnic nation”,
legalizing the unequal status between the main ethnic group and the “non-
main” ones.
The second element is that the state forms the ethnic-national nucleus in
the country and clearly separates it from other ethnic-national groups. The
state, rst of all, takes care of the “main” ethnic nation from assimilation
and depopulation.
The third necessary element is the development of the relationship
between the state and the ethnic nation. The state territory is the exclusive
homeland of the “main” ethnic nation, the state apparatus is an instrument
at the disposal of the main ethnic nation for the advancement of its collective
goals, including security.
In the fourth element, S. Smooha suggests that the state must mobilize
the main ethnic nation in order to strengthen the national identity of the
“main” ethnic nation members, to prevent apathy and assimilation. Thus,
within the framework of “ethnic democracy” there is the process of ethnic
political mobilization: “...by the means of which an ethnic community is
politicized for its collective interests and aspirations and then organized as
a collective subject with the resources for political action” (Esman, 1994:
216).
The fth element of the model assumes that the ethnic minority should
be limited in rights, both individual and collective. The state does not
recognize the national rights of “non-mainstream” groups, they are not
perceived as autonomous national minorities. Restrictions are also imposed
on the expression of the national identity of “non-mainstream” groups
(identication with an external homeland, school curriculum, national
history, and literature).
The sixth point of the model assumes that the state allows “non-
mainstream” groups to conduct parliamentary struggle. “Ethnic democracy”
makes available various forms of protest: it is allowed to use voting,
petitions, media, courts, political pressure, lobbying, demonstrations,
strikes and other legal means to change the status of an ethnic minority.
In the seventh element, the author suggests that the state should
perceive “non-core” groups as a threat. This perception is consolidated as
an integral and permanent part of the system. Threats include demographic
growth of an ethnic minority, excessive accumulation of political power,
economic superiority, belittling of the ethnic majority national culture, the
risk to national security, loyalty to a foreign homeland, subversion, unrest
and instability.
248
Vladimir Dubrovin, Yulia Solovarova, Aigul Zaripova y Aidar Zakirov
Heuristic Potential of Sammy Smooha Ethnic Democracy Concept
The eighth element of his system is that the state imposes some control
over “minor” groups. The members of “minor” groups are perceived as
a threat to stability, even if they are generally law-abiding people, their
potential for disloyalty is assessed through the number of law violations,
and this increases suspicion (Smooha, 2001).
S. Smooha admits that “the ethnic principle establishes clear ethnic
inequality” and contradicts the democratic principle. He also recognizes the
fact of infringement of the minority rights in favor of the majority through
state institutions, and the state builds up interaction with the ethnic
minority in advance, as with a potential “subversive element” destabilizing
the country. Thus, a forceful nature of inuence, which does not exclude
repression, is laid in the system of governance in relation to the ethnic
minority. Therefore, his assertion that, being an incomplete democracy,
“ethnic democracy” is closer to democracy than to “undemocratic regime”,
sounds paradoxical (Smooha, 2001).
Thus, we can assume that, from the point of view of the author of the
term, “ethnic democracy” is a kind of transitional state from ethnocracy to
a full-edged democratic regime, where the leading role is played not by a
class or a party, but by an ethnos. Such an ethnos is an active political actor
striving for democracy due to its cultural superiority, inuencing passive
actors, namely other ethnic groups, through forced assimilation.
A myth is created in “ethnic democracy” about the denial of discriminatory
measures against an ethnic minority against the background of the inferior
status of these minorities. In fact, the thesis of the low culture of the ethnic
minority is being imposed, which does not allow it to take the advantage
of democracy benets. Only a complete denial of their identity, the “low
culture” of their ethnos will allow them to join the family of “civilized
peoples”.
Conclusions
Summing up, the model of “ethnic democracy” allows the use of
authoritarian methods of power and, thus, the violation of the announced
rights of an ethnic minority. The aggravation of the ethnic-national
issue and its solution in an authoritarian way is supposed. Aggravation
of international relations is possible with the states where the minority
prevails or has a strong lobby.
Thus, “Ethnic democracy” is an element of state policy that covers up
inequality for national unity and for the sake of ending the struggle against
assimilation. Within the framework of the “ethnic democracy” model, part
of the population is deliberately infringed upon its rights.
249
CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 68 (Enero - Junio 2021): 243-250
The model of “ethnic democracy” by S. Smooha is based on the idea
of forming one ethnic nation in one state. The high heuristic potential of
“ethnic democracy” concept by S. Smooha makes it possible to analyze
the implementation of this model in practice, where Israel is a classic
example of “ethnic democracy”, and he mentions the Baltic states, Slovakia,
Northern Ireland, Poland among the states that have embarked on the path
of this model. The conditions for the stability of “ethnic democracy”, from
the author’s point of view, are the provisions, the “red thread” of which is
the dominance of the ethnic majority over the ethnic minority.
Within the framework of the “ethnic democracy” model, a part of the
population - the ethnic minority - is deliberately infringed on its rights.
Thus, in our opinion, “ethnic democracy” is an element of state policy,
which is used to cover up inequality for the national unity and for the sake
of ending the struggle against assimilation.
Acknowledgements
The work is performed according to the Russian Government Program
of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University.
Bibliographic References
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KHARITONOVA, Olga G. 2016. “Ethnic wars and post conict democracy” In:
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MANN, Michael. 2005. The Dark Side of the Democracy. Explaining Ethnic
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