Birds of prey in a semi-arid ecosystem
7
ANARTIA
Publicación del Museo de Biología de la Universidad del Zulia
ISSN 1315-642X (impresa) / ISSN 2665-0347 (digital)
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18111923 / Anartia, 41 (diciembre 2025): 7-15
Birds of prey of a semi-arid ecosystem in Falcón State,
Venezuela: Diversity and ecological patterns
Aves rapaces de un ecosistema semiárido en el estado Falcón, Venezuela:
diversidad y patrones ecológicos
Luis A. Saavedra1, Belkis A. Rivas1 & Carla I. Aranguren D.2
1Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida 5101, Venezuela.
2Laboratorio de Ecología Animal A. Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes,
Mérida 5101, Venezuela.
Correspondence: belalirodri62@gmail.com
(Received: 12-03-2025 /Accepted: 20-11-2025 / On line: 31/12/2025)
ABSTRACT
Notes are presented on the species richness, diet, and reproduction of birds of prey in a semi-arid ecosystem of north-
western Venezuela, based on nine months of daytime observations. A total of sixteen resident and two migratory species,
belonging to four orders and ve families, were recorded. Nests of eight species were observed and described. e diets of
ve species were determined through analyses of pellets and other prey remains collected around nests. e Easten Cotton-
tail Rabbit, Sylvilagus oridanus (J. A. Allen, 1890), was the most frequent prey item. Additionally, negative interactions
between rural communities and raptors are reported, including the use of pesticides by local residents to control species
perceived as threats to domestic animals.
Keywords: bird nests, human-wildlife conict, raptor diets, species richness.
RESUMEN
Se presentan notas sobre la riqueza de especies, la dieta y la reproducción de aves rapaces en un ecosistema semiárido del
noroeste de Venezuela, basadas en nueve meses de observaciones diurnas. Se registraron un total de dieciséis especies re-
sidentes y dos migratorias, pertenecientes a cuatro órdenes y cinco familias. Se observaron y describieron nidos de ocho
especies. La dieta de cinco especies se determinó mediante el análisis de egagrópilas y otros restos de presas recolectados
alrededor de los nidos. El Conejo de Florida, Sylvilagus oridanus (J. A. Allen, 1890), fue la presa más frecuente. Además,
se reportan interacciones negativas entre las comunidades rurales y las aves rapaces, incluyendo el uso de plaguicidas por
parte de los residentes locales para controlar especies percibidas como amenazas para los animales domésticos.
Palabras clave: conicto humanos-vida silvestre, dieta de rapaces, nidos de aves, riqueza de especies.
thorny shrubs (Matteucci 1982, Rodríguez et al. 2010,
Nassar et al. 2013). ere are only a few studies that have
assessed the avifauna in these environments, and even
fewer that focus on birds of prey, a group typically men-
tioned only in supplementary lists or in a limited number
of reproductive studies (Barnes & Phelps 1940, Bosque &
Lentino 1987, Ramoni-Perazzi et al. 2001, Morales et al.
2004, Rodríguez-Ferraro & Blake 2008).
INTRODUCTION
Arid and semi-arid environments in Venezuela are pri-
marily located in the northern and western regions of the
country, covering less than 4.5% of the national territory.
ese areas are characterized by low rainfall and high tem-
peratures, which result in vegetation types such as decidu-
ous and semi-deciduous forests, xerophytic plants, and
Saavedra, Rivas & Aranguren
8
Raptors are dened as those species of birds that have
evolved from a common raptorial landbird ancestor that
have maintained a raptorial lifestyle; they include all spe-
cies within the orders Accipitriformes, Cathartiformes,
Falconiformes and Strigiformes (McClure et al. 2019). In
Venezuela, this functional group is represented by 90 spe-
cies of the families Accipitridae, Cathartidae, Falconidae,
Pandionidae and Strigidae (Miranda et al. 2024). How-
ever, raptors remain one of the least studied bird groups in
the country. erefore, this study aims to contribute to the
understanding of raptors in a semiarid ecosystem of north-
western Venezuela through eld observations focused on
species richness, diet, reproduction, and interactions with
local communities.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
e observations were made in a semi-arid ecosystem
located 15 km southeast of Pedregal, Falcón State, Venezu-
ela (10°56’15”N 70°00’41”W). e relief of the study area
consists of a continuum of small depressions surrounded
by hills. e vegetation, which includes cactus and dry
forest elements, is dominated by Prosopis juliora (Sw.)
DC. (Fabaceae), Bourreria exsucca (L.) Jacq. (Boragina-
ceae) and Bulnesia arborea (Jacq.) Engl. (Zygophyllaceae)
(Matteucci et al. 1982). e region has a dry, bi-seasonal
climate, characterized by a dry season from December to
March and rainfall peaks in May and October. Average
annual temperatures range from 24.5 °C to 28.6 °C, with
a total annual precipitation between 992 and 1,200 mm
(Matteucci et al. 1982).
Unrestricted, non-systematic daytime surveys were
conducted to record and identify raptor species between
August 11 and 30, 2022, and between March 24 and April
19, 2023. Observations were made using 8.5×32 Raptor
binoculars and photographs taken with a Canon EOS
Rebel T7 camera. Taxonomic classication follows Cle-
ments et al. (2023). Additionally, the nests of raptors were
identied and described (in terms of place of construc-
tion, type of material, size and height, and presence/ab-
sence of eggs. e description of the nests follows Simón
& Pacheco (2005). e diet was characterized based on
the collection of pellets and remains of prey found around
or inside the nests. e samples were placed in paper en-
velopes, which were labeled and transferred to the labora-
tory of the Vertebrate Collection of the University of Los
Andes (CVULA) for analysis. Each pellet was moistened
and washed with water, and its contents (bone fragments,
hair, scales, and insect exoskeletons) were separated using
tweezers to facilitate identication. Mammalian remains
(mandibles and skulls) were compared with reference
specimens of known species deposited in the CVULA
collection.
To identify which raptor species have negative interac-
tions with rural communities, local residents were asked
whether they considered any of them to be a threat to do-
mestic animals.
Finally, our species list was compared with those re-
ported in the literature (Barnes & Phelps 1940, Ramo-
ni-Perazzi et al. 2001, Rodríguez-Ferraro & Blake 2008)
using the qualitative Sørensen Similarity Index (Moreno
2001).
RESULTS
For the semi-arid environments of Venezuela, the pres-
ence of 30 species of raptors, including 28 resident and
two migratory species, has been documented (Barnes &
Phelps 1940, Bosque & Lentino 1987, Ramoni-Perazzi et
al. 2001, Morales et al. 2004, Rodríguez-Ferraro & Blake
2008). In the present study, 18 species were recorded, in-
cluding 16 resident and two migratory species (Table 1).
Four orders and ve families were represented. At the fam-
ily level, the Accipitridae showed the greatest species rich-
ness, followed by the Falconidae, Cathartidae, Strigidae,
and Pandionidae.
Comparison with previous studies carried out in Ven-
ezuela revealed moderate similarity levels: 51.9% with
the raptor assemblage of the Paraguaná Peninsula (Barnes
& Phelps 1940) and 50% with six arid sites in northern
Venezuela (Rodríguez-Ferraro & Blake 2008). However, a
similarity of only 24.4% was found with the raptor assem-
blage from the arid enclave of Lagunillas, in the Mérida
Andes (Ramoni-Perazzi et al. 2001).
A total of 20 dietary samples were collected, corre-
sponding to ve raptor species: Black Vulture, Corag-
yps atratus (Bechstein, 1793), Zone-tailed Hawk, Bu-
teo albonotatus (Kaup, 1847), Harris’s Hawk, Parabuteo
unicinctus (Temminck, 1824), Great Horned Owl, Bubo
virginianus (Gmelin, 1788), and Crested Caracara, Cara-
cara plancus (J. F. Miller, 1777). Eight prey categories were
identied—one bird, three reptiles, and four mammals
(Table 2). e Eastern Cottontail, Sylvilagus oridanus
(J. A. Allen, 1890) was recorded in the diet of four spe-
cies, whereas the Green Iguana, Iguana iguana (Linnaeus,
1758) appeared in three.
Regarding negative interactions between humans and
birds of prey, several poisoned animals were found during
the surveys. ese carcasses were located a few meters from
bait poisoned with carbofuran, as conrmed by local resi-
dents. e aected birds included two Turkey Vultures,
Cathartes aura (Linnaeus, 1758), one Crested Caracara,
Birds of prey in a semi-arid ecosystem
9
Table 1. Raptor species recorded for the semiarid ecosystems of Venezuela. R: resident species. M: Nearctic migratory
species.
Family Species Status Barnes 1940 Ramoni-Perazzi
et al. 2001
Rodríguez-Ferraro
& Blake 2008 This study
CATHARTIDAE
Sarcoramphus papa R x
Coragyps atratus R x x x
Cathartes aura R x x x
PANDIONIDAE Pandion haliaetus M x x x
ACCIPITRIDAE
Gampsonyx swainsonii R x x x
Elanus leucurus R x
Chondrohierax uncinatus R x
Elanoides forficatus R x
Rostramus sociabilis R x
Accipiter striatus R x
Geranospiza caerulescens R x x
Buteogallus urubitinga R x
Buteogallus meridionalis R x
Buteogallus solitarius R x
Parabuteo unicintus R x x x
Parabuteo leucorrhous R x
Rupornis mgnirostris R x x
Geranoaetus albicaudatus R x x x
Geranoaetus melanoleucus R x
Buteo brachyurus R x
Buteo albonotatus R x
STRIGIDAE
Megascops choliba R x x
Bubo virginianus R x
Athene cunicularia R x
Glaucidium brasilianum R x
FALCONIDAE
Daptrius chimachima R x x
Caracara planchus R x x x
Herpetotheres cachinnans R x x
Falco sparverius R x x x x
Falco columbarius M x
Saavedra, Rivas & Aranguren
10
Caracara plancus (J. F. Miller, 1777), and one Black Vul-
ture, Coragyps atratus (Bechstein, 1793) (Fig. 1). Accord-
ing to local residents, carbofuran is used to control birds of
prey considered harmful to domestic animals, as these rap-
tors may kill or cause serious injuries to small or newborn
chicks, as well as young goats and sheep.
Nesting by nine raptor species was documented
through direct observations. e characteristics and gen-
eral features of the nests of eight species are presented
here, following the classication system of Simón & Pa-
checo (2005). A species-specic description of the nests
observed in this study is provided below.
CATHARTIDAE
Black Vulture, Coragyps atratus (Bechstein, 1793)
An inactive Black Vulture nest was documented; how-
ever, it showed evidence of recent use. Feces and fragments
of white eggshells with small brown spots were present on
the sandy substrate. e nest had been observed on March
29, 2023, and local residents reported seeing juveniles in it
approximately one month earlier. e simple, unlined nest
was located in a cave-like cavity at ground level, beneath
the roots of a P. juliora tree (Fig. 2f ). Bone remains of S.
oridanus were found a few meters from this nest.
ACCIPITRIDAE
Zone-tailed Hawk, Buteo albonotatus (Kaup, 1847)
On 31 March 2023, a nest was observed on the top of
a B. arborea tree at a height of 12 m, where two white eggs
were found (Fig. 2e). One year later, on 14 April 2024 the
nest was revisited, and was found to be active and possibly
reused by the same pair, behavior that has been observed
in other populations (Johnson et al. 2020). e nest was
of the simple/platform type, measuring 75 cm in diameter,
40 cm in height, and 10 cm in depth. It was built with thin
branches of the same tree and lined with a shallow layer of
leaves. In both years, one parent remained in the nest while
the other stayed nearby. In 2023, one individual was ob-
served vigorously chasing away a Turkey Vulture. In 2024,
the remains of a Red-crowned Woodpecker (Melanerpes
rubricapillus Cabanis, 1862) were found beneath the nest.
White-tailed Hawk, Geranoaetus albicaudatus
(Vieillot, 1816)
On April 17, 2023, a White-tailed Hawk was observed
carrying a branch in its talons to a nest located in a Han-
droanthus sp. tree (Bignoniaceae) at approximately 4 m
above ground. On April 16, 2024, another nest under con-
struction was observed in a P. juliora tree at 3 m above
ground. Both nests were situated atop a hill, belonged to
the simple/platform category, were exposed to direct sun-
light, and were constructed with thin branches (Fig. 2d).
Identied nest materials included branches of P. juliora
and Vachellia tortuosa (L.) Seigler & Ebinger (Fabaceae).
Harris’s Hawk, Parabuteo unicinctus (Temminck, 1824)
ree nests were documented during the sampling pe-
riod: e rst, observed on March 8, 2023, was inactive,
while the second and third, observed on March 23, 2023,
and April 14, 2024, respectively, were active. In the active
Table 2. Prey species found in the diet of four raptors in a semiarid ecosystem, Falcón state, northwestern Venezuela. COA
Coragyps atratus. PAU Parabuteo unicintus. BUV Bubo virginianus. CAP: Caracara planchus. BUA Buteo albonotatus.
Prey COA PAU BUV CAP BUA
REPTILIA
Iguana iguana x x x
Unidentified snake x
Unidentified lizard x
MAMMALIA
Rhipidomys venezuelae x
Sylvilagus floridanus X x x x
Marmosa xerophila x
Capra aegagrus hircus x
AVES
Melanerpes rubricapillus x
Birds of prey in a semi-arid ecosystem
11
nests, one parent was observed incubating eggs, while the
other remained perched a short distance away. e inactive
nest was located on a columnar cactus, Stenocereus griseus
(Haw.) Buxb. LC. at a height of 2.5 meters. e active nest
of 2023 was found 4 m above another columnar cactus of
the same species, while the active nest of 2024 was located
on a B. arborea tree at a height of 10 meters. All nests be-
longed to the simple/platform category, were bulky, and
were constructed within the branches of P. juliora tree
(Fig. 2c). A skull of S. oridanus was found beneath the
inactive nest. At the 2024 nest site, one of the adult birds
was observed ying over the nest carrying a preyed Iguana
iguana.
STRIGIDAE
Great Horned Owl, Bubo virginianus (Gmelin, 1788)
During sampling on April 14, 2023, two nestlings of
dierent sizes were observed in a nest located among the
branches of the columnar cactus, S. griseus, at a height of
2 m. is was a simple platform-type nest that measured
approximately 67 cm in diameter and 56 cm in height,
and was composed primarily of branches of P. juliora
(Fig.2b). Remains of prey and pellets were found in, un-
der, and around the nest. On April 14, 2024, another nest
with similar characteristics was recorded on another S. gri-
seus, at a height of 3 m. e nest contained a nestling, and
Figure 1. Birds of prey poisoned by consumption of carbofuran bait in a semiarid environment in Falcón state, northwestern Venezu-
ela. A. Caracara planchus. B Cathartes aura.
Figure 2. Nests of birds of prey found in a semi-arid environment in Falcón state, northwestern Venezuela. A. Caracara plancus.
B.Bubo virginianus. C. Parabuteo unicintus. D. Geranoaetus albicaudatus. E. Buteo albonotatus. F. Coragyps atratus.
Saavedra, Rivas & Aranguren
12
one of the parents observed from a distance. e structural
characteristics of the nests, along with the documented be-
havior of nest reuse by the Great Horned Owl (Artuso et
al. 2022), suggest that both may have represented previ-
ously abandoned nests of the Harris’s Hawk.
FALCONIDAE
Crested Caracara, Caracara plancus (Miller, 1777)
On March 30, 2023, an inactive simple platform-type
nest was found on a columnar cactus, S. griseus, at a height
of 2 m and exposed to direct sunlight. e nest was pri-
marily composed of branches of P. juliora and V. tortuosa
(Fig. 2a). Two adult Crested Caracaras were observed
nearby, and local residents conrmed that the nest be-
longed to these birds and had been occupied since a few
months earlier. Below and around the nest, there were
abundant feces, pellets, and prey remains.
Laughing Falcon, Herpetotheres cachinnans
(Linnaeus, 1758)
On August 13, 2023, a cavity-type nest was discovered
in a stone wall along the banks of a seasonal stream at a
height of 3.5 m. e nest measured 60 cm deep and 25
cm wide, with a cavity height that tapered toward the
bottom. Its interior consisted of a rocky, sandy substrate
forming a concave space. e nest was occupied by a ju-
venile with remains of light-colored down (Fig. 3b). On
April 17, 2024, another nest was located in a cavity ap-
proximately 3 m high in a B. arborea tree. An adult was
observed nearby, vocalizing energetically, suggesting that
the pair was brooding or that chicks were present inside
the nest. Direct inspection was not possible because a
honeycomb of meliponine bees was situated about 1 m
below the nest.
American Kestrel, Falco sparverius (Linnaeus, 1758)
On March 30, 2023, a cavity-type nest with a diameter
of 23 cm was discovered in a Bulnesia arborea (Jacq.) Engl.
tree at a height of 2.5 m and a depth of 1 m (Fig.3a). e
nest contained four cream-colored eggs with brown spots,
resting on a layer of small branches, B. arborea leaves, and
some feathers. Upon revisiting the nest on April 14, 2024,
two chicks and one unhatched egg were observed. On
both occasions, one parent remained in the nest while the
other kept watch from a distance.
Figure 3. Nests of birds of prey found in a semi-arid environment in Falcón state, northwestern Venezuela. A. Falco sparverius. B.Her-
petotheres cachinnans.
Birds of prey in a semi-arid ecosystem
13
DISCUSSION
e high species diversity of birds of prey recorded in
the present study, along with the moderate to low similar-
ity compared to other lists from semiarid environments in
Venezuela, reects the success of our survey in inventory-
ing birds of all raptorial families (Accipitridae, Catharti-
dae, Falconidae, Pandionidae, and Strigidae) occurring in
the country.
e Lara-Falcón ecosystem complex comprises the
largest region of arid and semi-arid environments in Ven-
ezuela (16,000 km²), encompassing a variety of vegetation
types, including cactus, shrubs, and desert forests (Mat-
teucci et al. 1982, Schubert 1988, Rodríguez-Ferraro &
Blake 2008). is environmental heterogeneity likely con-
tributes to a relatively high species richness (20 species)
and a moderate similarity in species composition when
compared with other semi-arid areas in the region, such as
the Paraguaná Peninsula, and other continental semi-arid
regions of Venezuela (Barnes & Phelps 1940).
Although the arid enclave of Lagunillas covers a small
area (350 km²), it supports a relatively high raptor diver-
sity (15 species). is may be attributed to the heteroge-
neity of surrounding non-arid ecosystems, which allows
many species not typically associated with semi-arid envi-
ronments to enter and leave the enclave easily (Ramoni-
Perazzi et al. 2001). For this reason, this enclave shows the
lowest similarity in species composition to the community
that we studied.
Compared with other ecosystems in Venezuela, arid
and semi-arid environments are less diverse. For example,
in the Llanos region of Venezuela, 28 species of diurnal
raptors have been reported, despite the genera Cathartes
and Coragyps being excluded from the list (Jensen et al.
2005). Similarly, 25 species of diurnal and nocturnal rap-
tors have been reported for a cloud forest in the Andes of
Mérida (Rengifo et al. 2005), and 23 species for the Cata-
tumbo River region of the Maracaibo Lake basin (Pirela et
al. 2009). e reduced diversity of arid ecosystems is pos-
sibly due to their lesser primary productivity and environ-
mental complexity, which cause the fauna of these regions
to have lower population densities and species richness
(Soriano & Ruíz 2003).
Birds of prey are a challenging group to study owing to
their relatively low population densities, wide geographic
ranges, high mobility, avoidance of areas with intense hu-
man activity, and, in some species, pronounced crepuscu-
lar or nocturnal behavior (Fuller & Mosher 1981). Ac-
curate identication of raptors, particularly in ight, is of
paramount importance, as are the observer’s experience,
the methodological design, and the intensity of sampling,
since these factors inuence species detection and, conse-
quently, the quality of inventories.
Regarding the diet of some of the species analyzed, the
Great Horned Owl has been described as an opportunistic
predator, consuming a wide range of vertebrates and inver-
tebrates, particularly nocturnal animals (Artuso et al. 2022).
However, our observations highlight the inclusion of I.
iguana, a diurnal species, in its diet. In contrast, the Harris’s
Hawk primarily preys on rabbits and lizards in populations
studied in the United States (Mader 1975), which coincides
with the observations reported in the present study.
Regarding the Crested Caracara, our samples indicate
that, in addition to species native to the semi-arid ecosys-
tem, domestic species such as goats, Capra aegagrus hircus
Linnaeus, 1758, are included in its diet. e consumption
of domestic species no doubt owes to the scavenging habits
of the species (Morrison & Dwyer 2023); however, locals
claim that the species may kill and eat newborns, which
creates a potential human-wildlife conict. With respect
to the diet of four of the ve species, the presence of S. or-
idanus stands out, suggesting a key role of this lagomorph
in the food chain.
In the study area, the wet season extends from April
to November, with two rainfall peaks, the rst in May
and the second in September–October (Matteucci et al.
1982). Regarding reproductive activity, breeding was ob-
served between March and April, with only one record in
August. In the Venezuelan plains, the highest number of
raptor nests has been recorded during the wet season, al-
though some nesting also occurs in the dry season (Mader
1981). e synchronization of reproduction in semiarid
environments may be directly related to rainfall patterns,
which inuence the leang, owering and fruiting seasons
of most plant species and, consequently, the availability of
prey (Guevara et al. 1992).
Conversations with local residents revealed negative
interactions between rural communities and birds of
prey. Local farmers oen perceive certain raptor species as
threats to their domestic animals, including goats, young
sheep, and poultry. Among the raptors, the Crested Cara-
cara is perceived most negatively, being considered a major
threat to small domestic ruminants. Similarly, the Crane
Hawk [Geranospiza caerulescens (Vieillot, 1817)] and the
Harris’s Hawk are regarded as threats to poultry. ese
perceptions oen lead local residents to adopt retaliatory
measures such as nest destruction, direct hunting with
rearms or slingshots, and poisoning with pesticides like
carbofuran. Such attitudes toward raptors have also been
reported in other regions (Salom et al. 2021).
Saavedra, Rivas & Aranguren
14
Carbofuran is a neurotoxic pesticide that poses a signif-
icant risk to raptors, particularly those that are scavengers,
due to the high susceptibility of birds to this pesticide,
and to their propensity to both direct and secondary poi-
soning (Wiemeyer & Sparling 1991, Mineau et al. 2012,
Richards 2012, Krone et al. 2017). Although carbofuran
poisoning has been documented in several raptor species
across the Americas (de Almeida & de Almeida 2011,
Krone et al. 2017), there are currently no specic records
for Venezuela, highlighting the need for further research
in the country.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our gratitude to Idea Wild and Optics for
the Tropics for providing photographic equipment and
transportation support for this study. We also thank Lu-
cindo Miranda and the Romero Sánchez family for their
essential logistical and eld assistance. We thank Jesús
Molinari for his suggestions and comments that improved
this manuscript and Karen Knight and the anonymous
reviewers for their valuable comments that enhanced this
manuscript.
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