Keywords:

Deciduous thorny xerophytic shrublands

Lake Maracaibo

Red Book of Venezuelan Flora

mangrove

Wildlife Fauna Reservoir.

Flora at risk in the plant communities of the Ciénaga de La Palmita, Zulia State, Venezuela

Flora en riesgo de las comunidades vegetales de la Ciénaga de La Palmita, Estado Zulia, Venezuela

Flora em risco nas comunidades vegetais da Ciénaga de La Palmita, Estado Zulia, Venezuela

Antonio Vera

Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e254255

ISSN 2477-9407

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/RevFacAgron(LUZ).v42.n4.XII

Environment

Associate editor: Dr. Jorge Vilchez-Perozo

University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy

Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

Laboratorio de Ecología, Centro de Investigaciones

Biológicas, Facultad de Humanidades y Educación,

Universidad del Zulia, Apartado 526, Maracaibo 4001-A,

Estado Zulia, Venezuela

Received: 11-09-2025

Accepted: 07-11-2025

Published: 04-12-2025

Abstract

An inventory of the endangered ora of the deciduous thorny

xerophytic shrublands and mangrove forest was conducted in

the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir Ciénaga de La Palmita and Isla de

Pájaros, Zulia State, Venezuela. The research was carried out

through 10 sampling events, plots of 400 m² and 1000 m², and eld

explorations (2021-2022). The species were classied according

to the Red Book of Venezuelan Flora, identifying 23 species and

16 families, grouped into the following categories: Vulnerable

(VU) 4 spp., Near Threatened (NT) 8 spp., Least Concern (LC)

8 spp., and Data Decient (DD) 3 spp. The Cactaceae family had

the highest number of species at risk (3), including Acanthocereus

tetragonus, Leuenbergeria guamacho, and Melocactus curvispinus,

the latter two being listed as Vulnerable. Only one individual of

Pseudalbizzia niopoides var. colombiana (Fabaceae), listed as

Vulnerable, was recorded. The mangroves Avicennia germinans

and Rhizophora mangle were listed as Near Threatened, and

Conocarpus erectus was designated as Least Concern. Additionally,

taxa endemic to Venezuela, Bromelia humilis (Bromeliaceae) and

Evolvulus villosissimus (Convolvulaceae), were found to be Near

Threatened and Data Decient, respectively, due to res, harvesting

for ornamental purposes, and restricted distribution. The medicinal

trees Guaicum ocinale and Pterocarpus ocinalis were listed as

Vulnerable and Least Concern, respectively. The orchid Encyclia

cordigera was classied as Near Threatened. It was concluded that

the number of at-risk species is increasing in the studied Wildlife

Fauna Reservoir (ABRAE) due to anthropogenic disturbances

currently threatening its ora.

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e254255 October-December. ISSN 2477-9409.

2-6 |

Resumen

Se realizó el inventario de la ora en riesgo de los arbustales

xerólos espinosos deciduos y el bosque de manglar en la Reserva

de Fauna Silvestre Ciénaga de La Palmita e Isla de Pájaros, Estado

Zulia, Venezuela. La investigación se hizo a través de 10 muestreos,

parcelas de 400 m

y 1000 m

y exploraciones de campo (periodo

2021-2022). Las especies se clasicaron según el Libro Rojo de

la Flora Venezolana, identicándose 23 especies y 16 familias,

agrupadas en las categorías: Vulnerable (VU) 4 spp., Casi Amenazada

(NT) 8 spp., Preocupación Menor (LC) 8 spp. y Datos Insucientes

(DD) 3 spp. La familia Cactaceae reunió el mayor número de

especies en riesgo (3) con Acanthocereus tetragonus, Leuenbergeria

guamacho y Melocactus curvispinus, destacando las dos últimas

como Vulnerables; mientras que de Pseudalbizzia niopoides var.

colombiana (Fabaceae), catalogada como Vulnerable, se censó

solo un individuo. Los mangles Avicennia germinans y Rhizophora

mangle se registraron como Casi Amenazadas y Conocarpus erectus

fue designada en Preocupación Menor. Además, se encontraron

taxones endémicos para Venezuela, Bromelia humilis (Bromeliaceae)

y Evolvulus villosissimus (Convolvulaceae) como Casi Amenazada

y de Datos Insucientes respectivamente, relacionado con quemas,

extracción para nes ornamentales y distribución restringida.

Los árboles Guaicum ocinale y Pterocarpus ocinalis, de uso

medicinal, se catalogaron Vulnerable y de Preocupación Menor

respectivamente; y la orquídea Encyclia cordigera se clasicó como

Casi Amenazada. Se concluyó que las especies en riesgo aumenten

en la Reserva de Fauna Silvestre (ABRAE) estudiada, debido a las

perturbaciones antropogénicas que actualmente atentan contra su

ora.

Palabras clave: arbustales xerólos espinosos deciduos, Lago de

Maracaibo, Libro Rojo de la Flora Venezolana, manglar, Reserva de

Fauna Silvestre.

Resumo

Foi realizado um inventário da ora ameaçada de extinção dos

arbustais xerótos espinhosos decíduos e do manguezal na Reserva

de Vida Selvagem Ciénaga de La Palmita e Isla de Pájaros, no estado

de Zulia, Venezuela. A pesquisa foi conduzida por meio de 10 eventos

de amostragem, em parcelas de 400 m² e 1000 m², e explorações de

campo (2021-2022). As espécies foram classicadas de acordo com

o Livro Vermelho da Flora Venezuelana, identicando-se 23 espécies

e 16 famílias, agrupadas nas seguintes categorias: Vulnerável (VU) 4

spp., Quase Ameaçada (NT) 8 spp., Pouco Preocupante (LC) 8 spp.

e Dados Insucientes (DD) 3 spp. A família Cactaceae apresentou

o maior número de espécies em risco (3), incluindo Acanthocereus

tetragonus, Leuenbergeria guamacho e Melocactus curvispinus, sendo

as duas últimas classicadas como Vulneráveis. Apenas um indivíduo

de Pseudalbizzia niopoides var. colombiana (Fabaceae), classicada

como Vulnerável, foi registrado. Os manguezais Avicennia germinans

e Rhizophora mangle foram classicados como Quase Ameaçados,

e Conocarpus erectus foi classicado como Pouco Preocupante.

Além disso, os táxons endêmicos da Venezuela, Bromelia humilis

(Bromeliaceae) e Evolvulus villosissimus (Convolvulaceae), foram

classicados como Quase Ameaçada e com Dados Insucientes,

respectivamente, devido a incêndios, coleta para ns ornamentais

e distribuição restrita. As árvores medicinais Guaicum ocinale

e Pterocarpus ocinalis foram classicadas como Vulneráveis e

Pouco Preocupantes, respectivamente. A orquídea Encyclia cordigera

foi classicada como Quase Ameaçada. Conclui-se que o número de

espécies em risco está aumentando na Reserva de Vida Selvagem

estudada (ABRAE) devido a perturbações antropogênicas que

atualmente ameaçam sua ora.

Palavras-chave: matagais xerólos espinhosos decíduos, Lago

Maracaibo, Livro Vermelho da Flora Venezuelana, manguezal,

Reserva de Vida Selvagem.

Introduction

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

has estimated that around 43,000 plant species have declined in

number and/or geographic distribution, and are currently threatened

with extinction (IUCN, 2020). This loss has been accentuated in

practically all ecosystems on the planet due to human activities such

as agricultural and urban land use (Tachack-García & Rodríguez,

2020).

The second edition of the Red Book of Venezuelan Flora was

published in the country in 2020; it is a work that compiles the scientic

knowledge available on the nation’s ora and its conservation status.

This has been considered absolutely necessary and important given

the marked reduction experienced by plant populations as a result

of the environmental degradation of dierent natural ecosystems

(Huérfano et al., 2020). In addition, there are investigations that

have revealed the dierent states of risk in which the national ora

is found, located in dierent wild plant formations that make up the

Venezuelan phytogeography.

In this regard, Lárez & Prada (2014) inventoried 19 threatened

species and classied them as Critically Endangered (CR) 1 sp.,

Endangered (EN) 3 spp., and Vulnerable (VU) 15 spp. in the Deltaic

Plain of Monagas State.

Meanwhile, Bello (2020) reported 23 species categorized as

Endangered (EN) 1 sp., Vulnerable (VU) 7 spp., Near Threatened

(NT) 6 spp., Least Concern (LC) 6 spp., and Data Decient (DD)

3 spp. for the semi-arid corridor on the northern slope of the Araya

Peninsula, Sucre State.

Similarly, Bello et al. (2020) recorded 12 taxa in the categories

of Endangered (1 sp.), Vulnerable (4 spp.), Near Threatened (3 spp.)

and Least Concern (4 spp.) for the Parque Litoral Punta Delgada of

Cumaná, Sucre State; and Vera (2023) pointed out 6 species considered

to be Endangered (1 sp.) and Vulnerable (5 spp.) in the xerophytic

relicts of the ciudad universitaria “Antonio Borjas Romero” of the

Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Zulia State.

On the other hand, there are arguments that highlight the need

for and importance of conducting research such as this one, pointing

to the fth historical objective of the Plan de la Patria (Homeland

Plan), which includes carrying out basic and interpretive studies

of vegetation and ecosystems; protecting Areas Under Special

Administration Regime (ABRAE); systematizing the monitoring

of biodiversity, conservation activities, scientic study, and the

dissemination of information about the ora in these protected wild

natural areas (Gobierno Bolivariano de Venezuela, 2025).

Likewise, some of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of

the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development refer to ensuring the

restoration and use of terrestrial ecosystems, halting deforestation,

restoring degraded forests, increasing reforestation, controlling

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Vera. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e254255

3-6 |

Omar Zambrano HERZU herbarium of the Facultad de Agronomía

of the Universidad del Zulia. The nomenclature of the World Flora

Online Plant List (2025) was used in the updating of the epithets.

Results and discussion

The oristic study identied 23 species at risk, grouped into 16

botanical families, in the plant communities of the Wildlife Fauna

Reservoir Ciénaga de La Palmita and Isla de Pájaros, according to

the Red Book of Venezuelan Flora (Huérfano et al., 2020), Table 1.

The species at risk consisted of 20 dicotyledons and 3

monocotyledons. Regarding their life habit (biotype), they were

classied as trees (15), herbs (3), shrubs (2), epiphyte (1), stipe (1),

and climber (1), Table 1. According to the Red Book of Venezuelan

Flora, the species fell into four of the ten current categories of the

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), highlighting

4 species classied as Vulnerable (VU), 8 species as Near Threatened

(NT), 8 species as Least Concern (LC), and 3 species as Data Decient

(DD), Table 1 (Huérfano et al., 2020).

In general, the plant communities of the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir

under study have been subjected to stressors and disturbances that

threaten the conservation of their natural resources and ecosystem

stability, such as agricultural and livestock activities, human

occupation, reduced water ow to the swamp, habitat fragmentation,

logging, and burning (Medina & Barboza, 2006; Vera, 2022; Vera,

2024).

The species included in the Vulnerable (VU) category were

Pseudalbizzia niopoides var. colombiana (Britton) E.J.M.Koenen

& Duno, Guaiacum ocinale L., Leuenbergeria guamacho (F.A.C.

Weber) Lodé, and Melocactus curvispinus Pfei., Table 1. It is worth

noting that the situation of P. niopoides var. colombiana (niobe

albizia) was truly worrisome, as only one 5 m tall individual was

recorded in the deciduous thorny xerophytic scrublands of El Hicacal

Islet. This result was explained by the ndings of Huérfano et al.

(2020), who reported that this legume is subject to logging and lacks

specic conservation measures, such as seed preservation, which has

led to a decrease in the number of standing individuals (Huérfano et

al., 2020). All of these factors may have contributed to the decrease

in the population density of this legume in the investigated ABRAE.

Eight individuals of G. ocinale (lignum-vitae) were counted,

and their low abundance was linked to logging, habitat destruction,

the development of urban and agricultural activities, and the centuries-

long commercialization of its resin, used for medicinal purposes and

obtained from the stem, Table 1 (Hoyos, 1985; Huérfano et al., 2020).

Lignum-vitae is also on the IUCN Red List classied as Endangered

and included in Appendix II of the Convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (IUCN, 2020;

CITES, 2025).

Added to this, is the slow growth of G. ocinale which delays

its development until it reaches larger adult sizes (Hoyos, 1985;

Huérfano et al., 2020).

Regarding the species L. guamacho (guamacho), a greater number

of individuals were observed compared to P. niopoides var. colombiana

and G. ocinale. This was associated with the adaptive capacity of

cacti to arid and semi-arid environments, making them index species

for the deciduous thorny xerophytic shrublands of the Wildlife Fauna

Reservoir under study. The deciduous nature of L. guamacho during

drought also contributes to this, serving as a mechanism to avoid

excessive water loss and thus increase its survival.

biodiversity loss, protecting threatened species, and preventing their

extinction (Asamblea General de la Naciones Unidas, 2015).

The Ciénaga de La Palmita is located on the eastern shore of the

Maracaibo Lake strait, in Zulia State, Venezuela. It was declared an

Area Under Special Administration Regime (ABRAE) and designated

as a Wildlife Fauna Reservoir (Reserva de Fauna Silvestre; RFS)

on March 9, 2000, with the objective of conserving the habitat of

numerous bird species, protect game species and endangered species

(Gaceta Ocial de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, 2000).

However, little research has been conducted on the biota in general

within this ABRAE, and there are no studies on the threatened status

of its ora, despite the fact that this protected natural area is currently

subject to disturbances that signicantly threaten its biodiversity and

ecosystem stability (Vera, 2022).

When the Ciénaga de La Palmita was declared a Wildlife Fauna

Reservoir (Reserva de Fauna Silvestre; RFS) in 2000, 25 years ago,

there was already evidence of disturbances impacting the wildlife

of this large biotic area (Gaceta Ocial de la República Bolivariana

de Venezuela, 2000). This underscores the importance and necessity

of developing studies that contribute scientic knowledge about the

condition of part of the oristic component of this protected area.

The objective of this research was to inventory the ora at risk

in the plant communities of the Ciénaga de La Palmita, Zulia State,

Venezuela, according to the criteria of the Red Book of Venezuelan

Flora.

Materials and methods

The research was conducted in the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir

Ciénaga de La Palmita and Isla de Pájaros, located on the eastern

shore of the Maracaibo Lake strait, Zulia State, Venezuela (10º 35’

12”-10º 38’ 23” N and 71º 26’ 41”-71º 31’ 15” W), specically in the

deciduous thorny xerophytic shrublands of the southern area of said

Wildlife Fauna Reservoir (10º 35’ 46.0’’ N and 71º 30’ 09.0’’ W) and

in those of the small xerophytic enclave called El Hicacal Islet (10º

36’ 53’’ N and 71º 29’ 42’’ W) (Vera, 2024).

The study was also conducted in the mangrove forest, dominated

by Rhizophora mangle L., adjacent to La Palmita Cove (10° 36’ 55.8’’

N and 71° 29’ 59.1’’ W), in the communities of Conocarpus erectus

L. and Laguncularia racemosa (L.) C.F.Gaertn. near the shores of

the swamp itself (10° 37’ 859’’ N and 71° 28’ 651’’ W), and in the

lateral ridge of Avicennia germinans (L.) L. in the northern part of

the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir (10° 37’ 48.2’’ N and 71° 28’ 49.6’’ W).

The entire study area is subject to the semi-arid conditions of the Very

Dry Tropical Forest (b-MST) life zone according to Ewel and Madriz

(1968). The average temperature ranges from 27.8 to 28.3 °C, and

precipitation ranges from 400 to 500 mm, with a bimodal rainfall

pattern.

The surveys and eld explorations were conducted from

September 2021 to April 2022, covering both the rainy and dry

seasons. Plots of 50 x 20 m (1000 m² = 0.1 ha) were also delineated

in the deciduous thorny xerophytic shrublands, and 20 x 20 m (400

m²) plots were established in the dierent areas where mangrove

vegetation was inventoried.

The species were cataloged according to the classication

categories of the Red Book of Venezuelan Flora (Huérfano et al.,

2020). Taxonomic identication was carried out in the eld, with the

guidance of taxonomist botanists, and based on the comparison of the

collected botanical samples with existing material preserved from the

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e254255 October-December. ISSN 2477-9409.

4-6 |

Sánchez-Urdaneta et al. (2022) noted that L. guamacho was

the fourth taxon with the highest number of specimens (123) in the

Cactaceae collections of the nine (9) main herbaria in Venezuela,

indicating that it is a species with a considerable relative abundance

of individuals.

In Zulia, L. guamacho has been reported in the xerophytic forest

of the Las Peonías region in Maracaibo, in the semi-deciduous forests

on the Palmar River oodplain, in the disturbed thorny xerophytic

scrubland of Punta de Piedras, Miranda municipality, on the eastern

shore of Lake Maracaibo, and in the xerophytic vegetation of the

Maracaibo Botanical Garden (González, 1980; Fernández et al.,

2007; Vera et al., 2009; Rivera et al., 2022).

Despite these characteristics and its wide distribution in

Venezuela, “guamacho” populations are threatened, and some have

been eliminated due to the increase in human settlements (Huérfano

et al., 2020).

The cactus M. curvispinus (Turk’s cap cactus) is a globose

herb, found in only a few areas of the deciduous thorny xerophytic

shrublands in the southern area of the reservoir under study, and

represented by specimens growing only 15 cm above the ground, Table 1.

The low number of individuals is due to the impacts or disturbances

Table 1. Flora at risk in the plant communities of the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir Ciénaga de La Palmita and Isla de Pájaros, Zulia State, Venezuela.

Family Species Common name Biotype Category

Plant

community

N° of

individuals

Acanthaceae Avicennia germinans (L.) L.

black mangrove Tree NT Mangrove 18

Anacardiaceae Astronium graveolens Jacq.

glassywood Tree LC Dtxs

12-12

Arecaceae Copernicia tectorum (Kunth) Mart.

sará palm Stipe LC Dtxs

Bignoniaceae

Handroanthus serratifolius (Vahl) S.O.Grose

yellow ipê Tree NT Dtxs

Roseodendron chryseum (S.F.Blake) Miranda

gold tree Tree NT Dtxs

Bromeliaceae Bromelia humilis

Jacq.

dwarf bromelia Herb NT Dtxs

35-40

Burseraceae Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg.

gumbo-limbo Tree LC Dtxs

6-10

Cactaceae

Acanthocereus tetragonus (L.) Hummelinck

barbed-wire cactus Shrub LC Dtxs

6-47

Melocactus curvispinus Pfei.

turk’s cap cactus Herb VU Dtxs

Leuenbergeria guamacho (F.A.C.Weber) Lodé

guamacho Tree VU Dtxs

29-37

Combretaceae

Conocarpus erectus L.

button mangrove Tree LC Mangrove 30

Terminalia catappa L.

indian-almond Tree DD Mangrove 3

Convolvulaceae

Evolvulus villosissimus

Ooststr.

shaggy dwarf morning-glory Herb DD Dtxs

Ipomoea chenopodiifolia (M.Martens & Galeotti) Hemsl.

morning glory Climber DD Dtxs

Euphorbiaceae Croton hostmannii Miq.

croton Shrub LC Dtxs

Fabaceae

Pseudalbizzia niopoides var. colombiana (Britton)

E.J.M.Koenen & Duno

niobe albizia

Tree VU Dtxs

Pterocarpus ocinalis Jacq.

dragonsblood tree Tree LC Mangrove 3

Opiliaceae Agonandra brasiliensis Benth & Hook.f.

ivory wood tree Tree NT Dtxs

Orchidaceae Encyclia cordigera (Kunth) Dressler

buttery orchid Epiphyte NT Dtxs

Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mangle L.

red mangrove Tree NT Mangrove 16

Sapotaceae

Sideroxylon obtusifolium subsp. obtusifolium (Roem. &

Schult.) T.D.Penn.

jungle plum

Tree LC Dtxs

Zygophyllaceae

Guaiacum ocinale

lignum vitae Tree VU Dtxs

3-5

Plectrocarpa arborea (Jacq.) Christenh. & Byng

vera wood Tree NT Dtxs

3-1

Category of the current and international registry of the Red Book of Venezuelan Flora and of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) VU= Vulnerable, NT= Near Threatened,

LC= Least Concern, DD= Data Decient;

Species on the IUCN Red List, classied as “Endangered”;

Species included in Appendix II of CITES (2025) (Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora);

Endemic species;

Dtxs= Deciduous thorny xerophytic shrublands in the southern area of the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir;

Dtxs= Deciduous thorny

xerophytic shrublands of El Hicacal Islet; N° of individuals= when two numerical values appear, the rst corresponds to the southern sector of the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir and the second to El

Hicacal Islet.

experienced by the plant communities of this ABRAE, which in turn

is linked to the report by Huérfano et al. (2020) on environments with

highly fragmented vegetation, low-lying thorny scrublands with few

well-developed trees where M. curvispinus grows.

However, Melocactus is the second most representative genus

of the Cactaceae family in Venezuela with 10 species, according to

Sánchez-Urdaneta et al. (2022). This nding reects the need and

importance of protecting and safeguarding the biological integrity of

cactus species in the country.

The species Agonandra brasiliensis Benth & Hook.f., A.

germinans (black mangrove), Bromelia humilis Jacq., Plectrocarpa

arborea (Jacq.) Christenh. & Byng, Encyclia cordigera (Kunth)

Dressler, and R. mangle (red mangrove) were recorded under the Near

Threatened (NT) category, Table 1, which groups taxa not considered

Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable. However, these

species are very close to being included in one of these threat

categories (Huérfano et al., 2020). Therefore, the Venezuelan state is

urged to implement actions to halt the risk posed by these taxa.

The black mangrove, A. germinans, was represented by trees 8 to

10 m tall that form part of the lateral belt bordering the mangrove to

the north of the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir. Completely dry individuals

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Vera. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e254255

5-6 |

were also recorded, some standing dead and others with only trunk

remnants. This was linked to the limited water supply, drought, and

high salinity of the surface water (45 and 75 ppm) detected in the

area, generating serious consequences such as habitat loss for fauna

and a decrease in the input of allochthonous organic matter for the

aquatic biota of the swamp.

Meanwhile, R. mangle was inventoried in the mangrove forest

adjacent to the estuarine waters of Lake Maracaibo and near La

Palmita Cove. The mangrove consisted of trees up to 15 m tall, with a

fairly uniform, closed canopy, with few gaps or openings due to fallen

trees, and the forest could be in advanced and mature succession.

The species B. humilis (dwarf bromelia) is a rosette-forming

herb that grows in colonies, which are often burned by locals in the

ABRAE (Areas Under Special Administration Regime) under study

to drive away hidden snakes, thus causing the death and destruction

of these populations. Bello Pulido (2018) has reported the uprooting

and burning of entire populations of dwarf bromelia to capture red-

footed tortoises (Chelonides carbonaria) in xerophytic shrublands of

Sucre State, Venezuela; in addition to the use of its organic fertilizer,

“tierra de caracuey”, and the uncontrolled use of B. humilis in the

landscaping of gardens, plazas, and roundabouts. It is likely that these

uncontrolled and unregulated practices will impact the reproduction,

growth, and development of its wild populations in arid and semi-arid

zones of the country.

The bromeliad B. humilis is endemic to Venezuela and has a

restricted distribution within the country (Huérfano et al., 2020).

Therefore, it warrants protection, propagation practices in nurseries,

and a reduction in its removal from the wild habitat.

The species E. cordigera (buttery orchid) was found only in

the deciduous thorny xerophytic shrublands of the southern sector

of the reservoir, where few individuals were recorded, Table 1. The

main threat to this orchid is its exploitation for ornamental use, sale

along roadsides, in urban nurseries, and for export (Huérfano et al.,

2020). Leopardi et al. (2009) have also reported E. cordigera in the

xerophytic shrublands of the Araya Peninsula, Sucre State, and due to

its Near Threatened status, policies should be declared to contribute

to its conservation in arid and semi-arid zones of the country.

According to Huérfano et al. (2020), the locations where E.

cordigera has been reported do not correspond to protected areas,

although its presence is likely in some national parks. This assertion

is important, given that the presence of E. cordigera in wild habitats

within the studied ABRAE (Areas Under Special Administration

Regime) is unique and warrants preventive measures for its

conservation.

The species Acanthocereus tetragonus (L.) Hummelinck,

Astronium graveolens Jacq., C. erectus, Copernicia tectorum (Kunth)

Mart., Croton hostmannii Miq., and Pterocarpus ocinalis Jacq.

were grouped in the Least Concern (LC) category, Table 1, which

includes taxa that, upon evaluation, do not meet any of the criteria

for the Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, or Near

Threatened categories. Therefore, this category includes abundant

species with a wide distribution (Huérfano et al., 2020).

This applies to A. tetragonus (barbed-wire cactus), since

according to Sánchez-Urdaneta et al. (2022) this species occupied the

third place of the cacti with the most preserved specimens (127) in the

collections of the nine (9) main herbaria of Venezuela.

On the other hand, C. tectorum (sará palm) and C. hostmannii

(croton) were inventoried only on El Hicacal Islet; two individuals

of the former and three of the latter were recorded, and both were

located near the ecotone of mangrove forest and deciduous thorny

xerophytic shrublands, Table 1.

The limited distribution of these species was associated with their

presence in the small xerophytic enclave called El Hicacal Islet, which

is isolated or separated from the rest of the xerophytic communities

of the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir by the mangrove forest (Vera et al.,

2019). This has possibly acted as a physical barrier preventing these

species from dispersing, colonizing, and occupying other areas of the

reservoir.

Meanwhile, although A. tetragonus and A. graveolens

(glassywood) were recorded in both deciduous thorny xerophytic

shrublands, Table 1, the rst species was found in areas with

moderate anthropogenic intervention, while the second was located

in a single area of the shrubland in the southern sector of the reservoir,

forming small populations (10° 35’ 46.0’’ N and 71° 30’ 09.0’’ W). A.

graveolens was also found forming a population of very few trees in

an area of the deciduous thorny xerophytic shrubland of El Hicacal

Islet.

The species C. erectus (buttonwood mangrove) was located in

areas such as La Palmita Cove, sand berms, the mangrove forest, and

ecotones, subject to ooding from estuarine waters and the swamp. In

addition, patches of very low-growing C. erectus shrubs, some multi-

stemmed and some dead individuals (standing dead), were found

along the edges of the swamp. This was linked to the threats facing

the area, such as limited water supply (low water ow), drought, and

high surface water salinity (45 and 75 ppm).

All of the above should serve to focus attention on this sector of

the wildlife fauna reservoir, which is wild habitat to these C. erectus

populations whose survival is compromised.

Regarding P. ocinalis (dragonsblood tree), very few individuals

were found on the sand berms and in the mangrove forest of the

Wildlife Fauna Reservoir, Table 1; which could be explained by the

salinities of 5 and 15 ppm recorded in the area. These values could

limit a greater abundance of P. ocinalis, given that it is a non-

halophytic plant that reaches its greatest development and survival

in non-saline wetlands such as swamps and riparian environments.

Regarding the species Evolvulus villosissimus Ooststr., Ipomoea

chenopodiifolia (M. Martens & Galeotti) Hemsl., and Terminalia

catappa L., Table 1, were categorized as Data Decient (DD),

a category that includes taxa with limited scientic information

for assessing their extinction risk, distribution, and/or population

dynamics.

The convolvulaceae E. villosissimus (shaggy dwarf morning-

glory) was recorded only for El Hicacal Islet and is endemic to

Venezuela, Table 1 (Huérfano et al., 2020). This is considered

important because, nationally, it has been reported in the states of

Anzoátegui, Bolívar, and Monagas, according to Hokche et al. (2008)

and Lárez et al. (2017). Therefore, it is suggested that management

measures be included in the Ordinance Plan and Usage Regulation

(Plan de Ordenamiento y Reglamento de Uso; PORU) for this Area

Under Special Administration Regime (ABRAE).

Very few individuals of the species I. chenopodiifolia (morning

glory) and T. catappa (Indian-almond) were inventoried; the former

was located in the shrublands of the southern sector of the reservoir,

and only three individuals of the latter were recorded: one on the sand

berms near La Palmita Cove and two within the mangrove forest,

Table 1.

The species I. chenopodiifolia is only reported for the Capital

District, Aragua State, and Trujillo State, while T. catappa is only

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e254255 October-December. ISSN 2477-9409.

6-6 |

recorded in the Capital District and Mérida State (Hokche et al.,

2008). The limited information currently available on these species

suggests the need for further scientic understanding of their wild

status.

Conclusions

It is concluded that the number of species at risk in the plant

communities of the Wildlife Fauna Reservoir Ciénaga de La Palmita

and Isla de Pájaros is increasing due to anthropogenic disturbances

that currently threaten its ora.

This study contributes to the implementation of scientic

research projects and plans on conservation and restoration, in order

to counteract the critical situation of the plant communities in this

protected natural area.

The scientic knowledge generated regarding the risk faced by

some plant species in this ABRAE constitutes baseline information

for the formulation of the Ordinance Plan and Usage Regulation

(PORU), in order to promote the sustainable management of plant

resources in this Wildlife Fauna Reservoir.

Acknowledgments

To the Consejo de Desarrollo Cientíco, Humanístico y

Tecnológico (CONDES) of the Universidad del Zulia for the funding

provided for this research through project No. VAC-CONDES-

CC-0557-15.

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