© The Authors, 2025, Published by the Universidad del Zulia*Corresponding author: saskyaguillem@gmail.com
Keywords:
Post-harvest
Agronomic management
Productivity
“Nacional” cocoa.
Socio-technical-economic characterization of cocoa production systems in the Manabí province
micro-regions - Ecuador
Caracterización socio-técnica-productiva de los sistemas de producción de cacao en las microrregiones
de la provincia de Manabí – Ecuador
Caracterização sociotécnico-econômica dos sistemas de produção de cacau nas microrregiões da
província de Manabí – Equador
Saskia Valeria Guillén Mendoza
1*
Fátima Urdaneta
2
Elvis Portillo
3
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e25425
ISSN 2477-9407
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/RevFacAgron(LUZ).v42.n4.XI
Socioeconomics
Associate editor: Dra. Maritzabel Materán Jaimes
University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
1
Escuela Superior Politécnica Agropecuaria de Manabí
“Manuel Félix López” (ESPAM MFL). Calceta, 10 de
Agosto #82 y Granda Centeno. Calceta, Manabí, Ecuador.
2
Departamento de Ciencias Sociales y Económicas, Facultad
de Agronomía, LUZ. Avenida Guajira, Ciudad Universitaria,
Núcleo Agropecuario, Facultad de Agronomía. Apartado
15205. Maracaibo, edo. Zulia 4001, Venezuela.
3
Departamento de Agronomía, Facultad de Agronomía,
LUZ. Avenida Guajira, Ciudad Universitaria, Núcleo
Agropecuario, Facultad de Agronomía. Apartado 15205.
Maracaibo, edo. Zulia 4001, Venezuela.
Received: 23-08-2025
Accepted: 25-10-2025
Published: 19-11-2025
Abstract
Cocoa production systems vary depending on regional
conditions and agronomic and post-harvest management practices
that impact cocoa quality. This descriptive study was conducted
to characterize the cocoa production systems of the microregions
of Manabí Province, Ecuador, in their social, technical, and
productive dimensions. This study is important because it allows
us to understand the dierential characteristics of cocoa production
systems in Manabí, facilitating decision-making to improve the
productivity and quality of Ecuadorian cocoa, a strategic product
for the national economy. To this end, a sample of 150 producers
was taken from the Northern, Central, and Southern regions of
Manabí, who were then administered a questionnaire. Cross-
tabs were compiled across regions with the frequencies or means
of the calculated indicators, and X
2
tests or analysis of variance
(depending on the type of variable) were applied. Results allowed
for the identication of characteristics specic to each microregion;
however, the producers in the South stood out with higher
productivity and average income, since they are directly dedicated
to cultivation, work on mostly legally registered properties, planted
mainly with “Nacional” cocoa, which is propagated by seed,
and despite watering and recording very little; they stand out for
carrying out the entire post-harvest process, a determining factor in
the best productive outputs since they obtained the best price related
to the quality of their cocoa.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e25425 October-December. ISSN 2477-9409.
2-6 |
Resumen
Los sistemas de producción de cacao presentan diferencia en
distintas condiciones regionales, así como por diversos manejos
agronómicos y postcosecha que inciden en la calidad del cacao
producido. Se realizó esta investigación descriptiva con el objetivo de
caracterizar los sistemas de producción de cacao de las microrregiones
de la provincia de Manabí, Ecuador, en sus dimensiones social, técnica
y productiva. Este estudio es importante porque permite comprender
las características diferenciales de los sistemas productivos de cacao
en Manabí, lo que facilita la toma de decisiones para mejorar la
productividad y calidad del cacao ecuatoriano, un producto estratégico
para la economía nacional. Para ello, se tomó una muestra de 150
productores en las regiones Norte, Centro y Sur de Manabí a quienes
se les aplicó un cuestionario. Se realizaron tablas cruzadas de las
regiones con las frecuencias o medias de los indicadores calculados
y se aplicaron pruebas de X
2
o Análisis de varianza (dependiendo del
tipo de variable). Los resultados permitieron identicar características
propias de cada microrregión; sin embargo, se destacaron los
productores del Sur con mayores productividades e ingresos medios,
ya que están dedicados directamente al cultivo, trabajan en predios en
su mayoría legalizados, sembrados principalmente de cacao Nacional,
el cual es propagado por semilla; y apesar que riegan poco y llevan
pocos registros del proceso productivo; se destacan por realizar todo
el proceso postcosecha, factor determinante en las mejores salidas
productivas ya que obtuvieron el mejor precio relacionado con la
calidad de su cacao.
Palabras clave: postcosecha, manejo agronómico, productividad,
cacao Nacional
Resumo
Os sistemas de produção de cacau variam dependendo das
condições regionais, bem como das práticas de manejo agronômico
e pós-colheita que afetam a qualidade do cacau produzido. Esta
pesquisa descritiva foi realizada para caracterizar os sistemas de
produção de cacau das microrregiões da província de Manabí,
Equador, em suas dimensões social, técnica e produtiva. Este estudo é
importante porque proporciona uma compreensão das características
distintivas dos sistemas de produção de cacau em Manabí, facilitando
a tomada de decisões para melhorar a produtividade e a qualidade do
cacau equatoriano, um produto estratégico para a economia nacional.
Para tanto, foi realizada uma amostra de 150 produtores das regiões
norte, centro e sul de Manabí, aos quais foi aplicado um questionário.
Foram feitas tabulações cruzadas das regiões com as frequências ou
médias dos indicadores calculados e aplicados testes X
2
ou Análise de
Variância (dependendo do tipo de variável). Os resultados permitiram
identicar características especícas de cada microrregião; no entanto,
os produtores do Sul destacaram-se pela maior produtividade e renda
média, uma vez que se dedicam diretamente ao cultivo, trabalham
em propriedades maioritariamente legalmente registradas, plantadas
principalmente com cacau Nacional, propagado por semente;
utilizam também irrigação, mas mantêm poucos registros do processo
produtivo; destacam-se por realizarem todo o processo pós-colheita,
fator determinante para os melhores resultados produtivos, visto que
obtiveram o melhor preço relacionado à qualidade do seu cacau.
Palavras-chave: pós-colheita, gestão agronómica, produtividade,
cacau Nacional
Introduction
In Manabí, a province of Ecuador, cocoa is a representative
product of several cantones (municipalities). Its production has been
a source of income for many families for years (Freire, 2018). There
are 130,924 hectares planted with an approximate production of
45,000 tons (INEC, 2022), which is marketed through intermediaries.
This cocoa has not undergone a correct post-harvest process, which is
why its fermentation levels are very low, presenting wide variations
in its characteristics (Palacios et al., 2021).
Productivity of cocoa plantations is inuenced by a complex
interaction of social variables, crop management and post-harvest
practices, however, these factors have not been fully integrated,
maintaining the perception that performance depends exclusively
on genetic material, underestimating the decisive inuence of
socioeconomic factors, specic agronomic techniques and post-
harvest processes in productive optimization (Barrezueta & Chabla,
2017).
This varied combination and interaction of causes has not been
studied comprehensively, justifying the need to perform analyses
with a systemic approach. Several authors (Coronel & Ortuño, 2005;
Ordoñez et al., 2019; Solano et al., 2000) provide a very useful
comprehensive vision to address this type of research and thus be
able to establish the inuence of the dierent decisive processes on
the nal product, given that interest in chocolate has increased due to
its functional and potential health eects, so each production system
must be managed with well-dened criteria and objectives (Abt &
Robin, 2020).
Platas et al. (2017) dene production systems as an ecosystem
modied by humans through the use of natural resources in
agricultural production processes, valuing the role of producers as
decision-makers in their management practices, thus ratifying the
need to consider the role of humans for their study and comprehensive
understanding.
In this way, at least the social, technical, and productive dimensions
emerge for the study of production systems, the rst related to man,
his potential as a producer and his role as decision-maker; the second
to all aspects of agronomic and post-harvest management; and the
third to the productive outputs of the system.
Thus, a descriptive research was proposed with the objective
of characterizing the cocoa production systems of the province of
Manabí, in their social, technical and productive dimensions.
Materials and methods
The research was conducted using a non-experimental, eld-
based design (Arias, 2006) and comparative type (Hurtado, 2010),
given that dierences in the characteristics of the microregions will
be established.
Study area geographic location
Field research was carried out in the province of Manabí, located
at the center-northwest of Ecuador, which has a subtropical climate
between dry and humid, as well as a temperature average of 24 °C, a
relative humidity of 83.3 % per month and a rainfall average of 2,100
mm.year
-1
. (Gobierno Provincial de Manabí, 2021).
Population and sample
The study universe consisted of the cocoa production systems in
the province of Manabí. The sample was selected through stratied
random sampling with proportional allocation (Scheaer et al.,
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Guillén et al Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e25425
3-6 |
X
2
test showed an association between the indicators of
farmer occupation, other productive activity, technical assistance,
associativity, and legalization of the plot with respect to the
microregions (pX
2
≤ 0.01), meaning that they behave dierently
among them. Data shows that in the Southern microregion, fewer
farmers are dedicated to this crop and other occupations were eported
in the survey as housewives and students. They also show the highest
percentage of plot legalization with legal security for production.
Table 2. Indicators of the socio-managerial dimension
Microregion (% by Microregion) Total
Indicator
North
(N=60)
Center
(N=59)
South
(N=31)
(%)
(N=150)
Age in years*
(mean±sd)
50.7±15.8 59.7±13.5 54.4±11.7 55.0±14.7
Male Gender 86.7 93.2 83.9 88.7
Primary education
level
60.0 72.9 71.9 67.3
Occupation: farmer
*
83.3 83.1 61.3 78.7
Other productive
activity**
41.7 69.1 48.4 54.0
Lives on the plot 73.3 72.9 77.4 74.0
Technical
assistance**
31.7 59.3 54.8 47.3
Finnancial support 21.7 32.2 32.3 28.0
Asociated** 68.3 89.8 64.5 76.0
Legalized proper-
ty**
76.7 94.9 96.8 88.0
**P Χ
2
≤0.01; *P Χ
2
≤0.05; mean ± sd: mean ± standar desviation
In terms of technical assistance, it is striking that the Northern
microregion has the least access to it. In this sense, Paladines et al.
(2022) highlight the importance of receiving technical assistance, as
there are dierent factors that can negatively aect crop production,
especially in small production units where management is inadequate.
The Central microregion has the highest frequencies in other
productive activities and associativity, which could be due to the
agricultural academic oering of a university located in this area, in
addition to generating sources of work.
Regarding public services, it was observed that electricity service
was available in 100 % of the production units, drinking water
service was available in 61.3 %, 24 % had internet access and 34 %
had available a health center in their community (Table 3). 60.7 %
of producers access their farms via dirt roads, but 72.1 % considered
the road system acceptable. The availability of public services is
essential for the good performance of farmers and the subsequent
development of agricultural activities, as mentioned by Martínez
(2023) in his classication of cocoa producers in Córdoba, Colombia,
who indicates, that access to electricity facilitated the acquisition of
equipment that increased crop production. The X
2
test did not detect
any behavior in the indicators associated with the microregions, since,
in most cases, the observed frequencies were very low.
Table 3. Public service indicators (Socio-managerial Dimension)
Microregion (% by Microregion)
Indicator
North
(N=60)
Center
(N=59)
South
(N=31)
Total %
(N=150)
Drinking wáter service 60.0 78.0 32.3 61.3
Internet 28.3 27.1 9.7 24.0
Health center 38.3 35.6 22.6 34.0
Cable 33.3 15.3 9.7 21.3
Access by dirt road 46.7 59.3 90.3 60.7
Aceptable road system 65.0 72.9 83.9 72.1
1987). The strata were determined by the dierent cocoa production
zones in the province, taking into account the importance by planted
area. The Northern microregion has the highest percentage of cocoa
area (63.13 %), followed by the Central region (27.77 %), and the
Southern region has the lowest percentage (9.10 %) (Ministry of
Agriculture and Livestock, 2021). Sample was established with this
in mind (Table 1).
Table 1. Distribution of the sample by microregion and cantones
(municipalities).
Microregion (strata) N N
Sample
%
North (Chone, El Carmen y Pedernales) 610 60 40,00
Center (Bolívar y Pichincha) 577 59 39,33
South (Portoviejo, Santa Ana, Pajan y 24 de Mayo) 394 31 20,66
158 150 100
Data collection technique and instrument
A socio-technical-productive questionnaire was designed as a
data collection instrument, administered individually to the sampled
producers. It consisted of closed-ended questions that responded to the
theoretical construct that allowed the study variable systematization.
Its indicators are:
Social dimension: gender, educational level, occupation, whether
engaged in another productive activity, living on the plot, land
ownership, public services, type of road, road conditions, associate,
technical assistance, nancing, labor, records, soil analysis, water
analysis.
Technical dimension: agronomic management sub-dimension:
type of cocoa, farm area, plantation age, planting density, propagation
type, shade type, crop planting system, fertilizer, type of fertilization,
pruning, irrigation, type of irrigation, water source, pest and disease
control, weed control.
Post-harvest management sub-dimension: fermentation method
and days, removal and frequency, drying and duration of days,
humidity, storage time.
Productive dimension: marketing, sales price, cocoa processing,
cocoa planted area, production, cocoa sales revenue, yields.
Data processing and analysis
Descriptive statistics, frequencies for discrete variables, and means
and standard deviations for continuous variables were calculated.
Contingency tables were constructed to compare the behavior of the
microregions. X
2
was applied to identify the relationship between the
discrete indicator and the groups (microregions). Analysis of variance
was also performed for continuous variables. The analyses were
conducted using SPSS v21.
Results y discussion
Social Dimension
The producers average age was 55.0±14.7 years, 88.7 % of
whom were male; 67.3 % had a primary education, and 78.7 % had
agriculture as their primary activity; however, 54 % reported another
productive activity to supplement their income. 74 % lived on the
farm or production unit., 47.3 % of these producers received technical
assistance, which generally came from government institutions. In
addition, 28 % had access to credit (Table 2).
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e25425 October-December. ISSN 2477-9409.
4-6 |
Table 4 shows a series of indicators that attempt to characterize
the management carried out by the cocoa producer. Although
management theory is very complex (Ropa and Alama, 2022), the
detection of indicators in these systems is very basic given that most
producers do not keep records; only 42 % do so manually; very few
carry out soil (7.3 %) and water (4.7 %) analysis, so that decision-
making regarding irrigation, fertilization, and other practices is very
empirical; furthermore, the predominant workforce is family labor, as
only 42 % hire any sta. Both hiring labor and keeping administrative
records were associated with microregion (X
2
≤ 0.001). While a
greater number of producers are engaged in another activity, they
need to hire labor, besides record-keeping was a predominant activity
in the central microregion with the highest level of associativity, as
shown in Table 2.
Table 4. Management indicators (Socio-managerial dimension)
Region (% by region) Total
Indicator
North
(N=60)
Center
(N=59)
South
(N=31)
(Total %)
(N=150)
Hire labor* 56.7 47.5 29.0 47.3
Keep manual records** 31.7 67.8 12.9 42.0
Perform soil analysis 3.3 13.6 3.12 7.3
Perform water analysis 5.0 3.4 6.5 4.7
**pΧ
2
≤0,01; *p Χ
2
≤0,05
Technical dimension
Agronomic management sub-dimension
In the province of Manabí, 82.6 % of producers cultivated only
Nacional cocoa type (Table 5) plus a 14.8 % which also presented
CCN-51 cocoa (Castro Naranjal Complex), only 2.7 % of the
productive systems are dedicated to the exclusive cultivation of CCN-
51; although Anzules et al. (2022) reported that CCN-51 occupies
50% of the cultivated area representing 80 % of Ecuador’s exportable
production. Iin Manabí, the cultivation of Nacional type prevails,
which means a strength in the production of aromatic species with a
better price.
Tabla 5. Manabí Cocoa Types
Microregion (% by Microregion)
Cocoa type
North
(N=60)
Center
(N=59)
South
(N=31)
(Total %)
(n=150)
Nacional 76.7 86.2 87.1 82.6
CCN 3.3 0.0 6.5 2.7
Both types 20 13.8 6.5 14.8
Table 6 shows the characteristics of the property and the crop,
including the average surface area of the production units, which was
8.1±13.6 ha, and whose plantations have an average of 17.2±14.20
years of age with a planting density of 836±251 plants.ha
-1
. In relation
to agronomic management, it was observed that 56.7 % carried out
propagation by seeds and 38.0 % by grafting, propagation by twigs is
is rarely used. Cocoa cultivation was planted in association (74.7 %)
with other crops such as citrus (38.7 %) and timber (26.7 %) mainly.
Producers reported that 45.3 % irrigated their plantations using
ood irrigation. 38 % used fertilizers; of that total, 55.4 % applied
organic fertilizer once a year. Among the most frequently performed
management practices were weed control and pruning. Pruning
was once a year (76.9 %), weed control was manual (86.9 %) and
mechanical (9 %). Pest and disease control was carried out by 63 %
of farmers.
There was an association between regions (pX
2
≤ 0.01) and
propagation, irrigation, fertilization, and pruning, as well as with
farm size (p ≤ 0.05). These practices are most commonly performed
in the central region, on smaller farms, allowing for greater control
over activities. This could be due to the fact that these farmers are
associated and receive training on management practices.
Table 6. Technical dimension indicators
Microregion (% by Microregión)
Indicator
North
(N=60)
Center
(N=59)
South
(N=31)
Total %
(n=150)
Farm area*
(mean±sd)
8.8±12.4 4.7±8.1 13.5±20.8 8.1±13.6
Plantation age (years)
(mean±sd)
15.6±14.4 16.8±13.6 21.0±19.9 17.2±14.20
Density (plants.ha-1)
(mean±sd)
892±221 814±291 771±205 836±251
Seed propagation** 28.3 71.2 83.9 56.7
Graft propagation** 65.0 22.0 16.1 38.0
Associated crop 68.3 79.7 77.4 74.7
Permanent shade 68.3 59.3 83.9 68.0
Irrigation** 41.7 69.5 6.5 45.3
Fertilization* 36.7 47.5 22.6 38.0
Pruning** 63.13 88.1 87.1 78.0
Weed control 100 94.0 93.5 96.7
Pest control 66.7 62.7 58.1 63.3
**p Χ
2
≤0.01; *p Χ
2
≤0.05; mean ± sd: mean ± standar desviation
Postharvest sub dimension
Table 7 shows that 36 % of the cocoa almonds were fermented,
87 % were fermented in sacks, and the fermentation lasted 2 to 3
days (46 % and 31 %). 51.6 % of the producers who fermented,
removed the ferment 12 hours after fermentation start. Drying was
carried out in 39.3 % of cases, lasting 2 to 3 days (71 %), depending
on weather conditions. The most common method for this activity
was the “tendal” that is exposing the cocoa beans to the sun on
raised platforms (58.9 %) followed by canopies or greenhouse-like
structures (25 %). Storage lasted 1 to 2 days (57.2 %). Fermentation,
removal, drying and storage were associated with the microregions
(X
2
≤ 0.01), these practices were carried out the most in the Southern
region (54.8; 32.3; 61.3 and 77 % respectively) since they must occur
sequentially for good cocoa almond processing (Cerón et al., 2020;
Streule et al., 2023).
Table 7. Post-harvest dimension indicators
Microregion (% by Microregión)
Procesos postcosecha
North
(N=60)
Center
(N=59)
South
(N=31)
(Total) %
(n=150)
Fermentation** 41.7 20.3 54.8 36.0
Sacks fermentation (n=54) 88.0 91.7 82.4 87.0
Removal* 23.3 10.2 32.3 20
Removal 12 hr (n=30) 42.9 71.4 50.8 51.6
Drying** 48.3 18.6 61.3 39.3
“Tendal” drying 58.6 40.0 70.6 58.9
Canopy drying 41.4 0 11.8 25.0
Drying 2 days 44.8 72.7 63.7 55.9
Storage (1 to 2 days)* 44.8 80.0 77.0 57.2
**p Χ
2
≤0.01; *p Χ
2
≤0.05
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Guillén et al Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e25425
5-6 |
Productive dimensión
Regarding the marketing channels identied in the productive
dimension (Table 8), results showed that 49.3 % of this production
was taken to collection centers, 26.7 % was taken to intermediaries
and 24 % to trading companies located in dierent zones, evidencing
a total absence of direct sales to exporters. This nding coincides with
Salazar and Espinoza (2022) who indicate a structural imbalance in
the marketing chain that harms primary producers. This imbalance is
characterized by a scenario of poor competitiveness, where a notable
lack of integrated commercial strategies is evident, as well as the
absence of eective monitoring and control mechanisms that could
optimize protability for producers and strengthen their negotiating
position in the market.
In all microregions, there was a very little tendency to process
cocoa in the same production unit, reaching only 8.11 %, preventing
producers from adding value to the product and obtaining its benetst.
Table 8. Marketing indicators
Microregion (% by Microregion)
Indicator
North
(N=60)
Center
(N=59)
South
(N=31)
(%Total)
(n=150)
Sells to
intermediary*
45.0 5.1 32.3 26.7
Sells to
Collection
center*
18.3 76.3 50.1 49.3
Direct to retail 36.7 18.6 9.7 24.0
Sells slime
cocoa**
18.3 66.8 3.2 34.0
Moisture content
(media ± sd)
5±7.1 47.1±34.9 27.9±25.4 32.9±30.1
Price ($.q-
1
)*
(media ± sd)
53.74±11.5 49.47±12.6 61.42±15.3 53.65±13.5
Processes cocoa 8.3 6.9 9.7 8.11
**p Χ
2
≤0.01; *p Χ
2
≤0.05; q: quintals; mean ± sd: mean ± standar desviation
Mendoza et al. (2021) indicated that the production and marketing
of cocoa presents diculties throughout the entire process, with
planning and development policies being decisive in guaranteeing
the social well-being of all actors in the production chain, as well as
agroecological development in obtaining this agricultural good.
Table 9 shows the productive indicators, the outputs of the
system, i show that the average area planted with cocoa per farm was
3.21±3.38 ha with an average production per farm of 23.31±59.02 q,
which caused an income of $ 1,275.52±3,232.20 with average yields
of 4.61±5.64 q.ha
-1
of cocoa (230.62±281.78 t.ha
-1
), there were only
signicant dierences for yield (p ≤ 0.05) since the South region stood
out with 850 ± 930 kg.ha
-1
, being higher than the national average
which is between 500-600 kg.ha
-1
(National Financial Corporation,
2021); so this is an important point to consider, since it would
improve their income due to greater productivity and consequently
Faced with this productive reality, several authors (García-
Domínguez et al., 2021; Salazar & Espinoza, 2022) agree that to
overcome these performance gaps and increase the competitiveness of
the Ecuadorian cocoa sector, it is necessary to implement fundamental
strategies such as promoting the development of producer associations,
implementing techniques that improve productivity, consolidating
access channels to the international market and strengthening research
aimed at genetic and agronomic improvement.
An analysis of the social, technical and productive dimensions
of cocoa production systems in Manabí shows a relationship
between the post-harvest processes implemented in the Southern
microregion and their superior yields and prices. Furthermore, the
high level of associativity in the Central Microregion correlates with
greater receipt of technical assistance and the subsequent adoption
of improved agronomic practices such as fertilization, irrigation,
and pruning. These ndings are consistent with those reported by
Barrezueta and Chabla (2017), who determined that cocoa yield
depends on a complex interaction of socioeconomic factors and
specic agronomic techniques, beyond genetic material. Similarly,
Gortaire et al. (2020) and Sobalbarro et al. (2020) have documented
that farmers organization in formally registered associations and
technical assistance access are determining variables for the adoption
of innovations in cocoa production systems. The legalization of farms,
particularly high in the South and Central microregions, is related
to better access to services and credit, conrming the importance of
legal security as a determining factor for investment in technological
improvements in agroecological systems (Cevallos et al., 2019;
Kassie et al., 2013).
Conclusions
Cocoa producers in Manabí are predominantly middle-aged men
with primary education, who live on legalized plots and participate
in associations, but have limited access to technical assistance and
demonstrate a limited use of record and analysis for agricultural
decision-making.
“Nacional” type cocoa prevails as the main variety, although
there is an emerging presence of CCN-51, which could compromise
traditional quality. Low productivity is primarily associated with
insucient irrigation, fertilization, and pruning practices. Deciencies
in post-harvest processes, especially fermentation, are a critical
dierentiating factor between microregions that directly impact nal
price and quality.
The Southern microregion is distinguished by its high yields
and incomes, occupational diversication (farmers, students, and
homemakers), a high degree of land properties legalization, and the
full implementation of post-harvest processes that improve product
their quality of life, in this way producer becomes more competitive
in the national market.
Table 9. Productive indicators (mean ± standard deviation)
Region
Cocoa area
(ha)
Production (q) Income ($) Yield.* (q.ha
-1
) Yield.* (kg.ha
-1
)
South 2.8±2.3 42.9±90.3 1.942.4±3.292.6 8.5±9.3 850±930
North 3.5±3.5 17.3±53.5 1.001.7±3.222.4 3.4±3.4 340±340
Center 3.1±3.6 19.0±40.0 1.196.2±3.218.8 3.7±3.7 370±370
Total 3.2±3.3 23.3±59.0 1.275.5±3.232.2 4.6±5.6 460±560
q= quintals
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(4): e25425 October-December. ISSN 2477-9409.
6-6 |
quality and price. There is a clear need for rural extension programs
tailored to the specic characteristics of each microregion to improve
production quality and farmers’ decision-making capacity regarding
the presentation and marketing of their products.
Literature cited
Abt, E., & Robin, L. (2020). Perspective on Cadmium and Lead in Cocoa and
Chocolate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 68(46), 13008–
13015. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b08295
Anzules, V., Pazmiño, E., Alvarado-Huamán, L., Borjas-Ventura, R., Julca-Vera,
N., Castro-Cepero, V., & Julca-Otiniano, A. (2022). Incidencia de cherelle
wilt y enfermedades fungosas en mazorcas de cacao CCN-51 en Santo
Domingo de los Tsáchilas, Ecuador. Idesia, 40(1), 31–37. http://dx.doi.
org/10.4067/S0718-34292022000100031
Arias, F. (2006). El Proyecto de Investigación. Introducción a la Metodología
Cientíca (Episteme, Ed.; 5ta ed.). https://books.google.co.ve/
books?id=y_743ktfK2sC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
Barrezueta, S., & Chabla, J. (2017). Agroeconomía Características sociales y
económicas de la producción de cacao en la provincia El Oro. Revista
La Técnica, Edición Especial, 25–34. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/
articulo?codigo=6230431
Cerón, I., García, M., Rodríguez, L., Cubillos, A., Polanco, E., López, M., Parra,
B., Moreno, J., & Quiñones, F. (2020). Estrategias tecnológicas para el
manejo del cultivo y el benecio del cacao. In Estrategias tecnológicas
para el manejo del cultivo y el benecio del cacao. https://doi.
org/10.21930/agrosavia.institutional.7403572
Cevallos, M., Urdaneta Ortega, F., & Jaimes, E. (2019). Desarrollo de sistemas
de producción agroecológica: Dimensiones e indicadores para su estudio.
Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 25(3), 172–185. https://doi.org/10.31876/
rcs.v25i3.27365
Coronel, M., & Ortuño, S. (2005). Tipicación de los sistemas productivos
agropecuarios en el área de riego de Santiago del Estero, Argentina. In
Problemas del Desarrollo. Revista Latinoamericana de Economía, 36,
(140), 64-88. https://doi.org/10.22201/iiec.20078951e.2005.140.7572
Corporación Financiera Nacional. (2021). Ficha sectorial Cacao y chocolate.
Corporación Financiera Nacional, 1(1), 1–29.
Freire, D. (2018). Sistema de trazabilidad del cacao no de aroma Theobroma
cacao para el desarrollo de productos con valor agregado. Revista
Digital de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, 5(Especial), 849–861.
http://45.238.216.13/ojs/index.php/EPISTEME/article/view/1549
García-Domínguez, J. U., Villegas, Y., Duran-Medina, E., Carrillo-Rodríguez,
J. C., Sangerman-Jarquín, D. M., & Castañeda-Hidalgo, E. (2021).
Descripción y análisis de productores de café de la región Mixe, Oaxaca.
Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas, 12(7), 1235–1247. https://doi.
org/10.29312/remexca.v12i7.2781
Gobierno Provincial de Manabí. (2021). Plan de Desarrollo y Ordenamiento
Territorial 2021-2030 (Vol. 2030). https://www.manabi.gob.ec/wp-
content/uploads/2022/09/PDOT_Manabi_2030_v1.1..pdf
Gortaire, D., Vanegas, W., Carvajal, E., Ortega, D., & Santos, A. (2020).
Análisis De Sostenibilidad Socieconómica, Productiva Y Ambiental De
Productores Agroecológicos a Pequeña Escala En Manabí-Ecuador: Caso
De Estudio Membrillal. Revista Ciencia e Investigación, 5(2), 40–65.
https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=7398044
Hurtado, J. (2010). Metodologia de la Investigacion. Guia para la comprension
holistica de la Ciencia (Quiron, Ed.; 4ta ed.).
INEC. (2022). Encuesta de supercie y producción continua. Instituto
Nacional de Estadística y Censos, 55. chrome-extension://
efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.
ec/documentos/web-inec/Estadisticas_agropecuarias/espac/espac-2021/
Principales resultados-ESPAC_2021.pdf
Kassie, M., Jaleta, M., Shiferaw, B., Mmbando, F., & Mekuria, M. (2013).
Adoption of interrelated sustainable agricultural practices in smallholder
systems: Evidence from rural Tanzania. Technological Forecasting
and Social Change, 80(3), 525–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
TECHFORE.2012.08.007
Martínez, A. (2023). Tipicación de productores de cacao (Theobroma cacao L.)
en la subregión del sur de Córdoba en Colombia. Revista de Investigación
e Innovación Agropecuaria y de Recursos Naturales, 10(2), 88–95.
https://doi.org/10.53287/dccx6428sm50v
Mendoza, E., Boza, J., & Manjarrez, N. (2021). Impacto socioeconómico de la
producción y comercialización del cacao de los pequeños productores del
cantón Quevedo. Revista Cientíca Ecociencia, 8, 255–272. https://doi.
org/10.21855/ecociencia.80.603
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería. (2021). Boletín situacional. Cultivo de
cacao. Boletín, 7. https://online.iphtml5.com/ijia/ibog/
Ordoñez, H., Navia, J., & Ballesteros, W. (2019). Tipicación de sistemas de
producción de café en la Unión Nariño, Colombia. Temas Agrarios,
24(1), 53–65. https://biblat.unam.mx/hevila/Temasagrarios/2019/vol24/
no1/6.pdf
Palacios, A., Quevedo, J., & Rodríguez, I. (2021). FETENSECA: Alternativa
para mejorar la calidad sensorial del cacao (Theobroma cacao L.)
cultivar CCN-51. Manglar, 18(4), 411–417. https://doi.org/10.17268/
manglar.2021.053
Paladines, A., Moreira, A., Mieles, A., & Garces, F. (2022). Avances en la
comprensión de la interacción entre Ceratocystis cacaofunesta y
Xyleborus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) en árboles
de cacao. Scientia Agropecuaria, 13(1), 43–52. https://revistas.unitru.edu.
pe/index.php/scientiaagrop/article/view/4268/4745
Platas, D., Vilaboa, J., González-Reynoso, L., Severino-Lendechy, V. H., López-
Romero, G., & Vilaboa-Arroniz, I. (2017). Un analisis teorico para el
estudio de los agroecosistemas. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems,
20(3), 395–399. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/939/93953814017.pdf
Ropa, B., & Alama, M. (2022). Organizational management: a theoretical analysis
for action. Revista Cientíca de La UCSA, 9(1), 81–103. https://doi.
org/10.18004/ucsa/2409-8752/2022.009.01.081
Salazar, D., & Espinoza, D. (2022). Análisis de competitividad del destino turístico
y el desarrollo de las rutas del cacao ecuatoriano. Turismo y Patrimonio,
18, 95–112. https://doi.org/10.24265/turpatrim.2022.n18.05
Scheaer, R. L., Mendenhall, W., Ott., L., & Gerow, K. (1987). Elementary Survey
Sampling. In Technometrics. 29(2), 248. https://doi.org/10.2307/1269791
Sobalbarro, M., Legarreta, M. A., García-Fernández, F., Olivas-García, J. M.,
Carrillo-Soltero, M. E., & Guzmán-Rodríguez, A. (2020). Análisis
Socioeconómico de los Pequeños Productores de Cacao en Honduras.
Caso APROSACAO. Ceiba, 0848, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.5377/ceiba.
v0i0848.8963
Solano, C., Bernués, A., Rojas, F., Joaquín, N., Fernandez, W., & Herrero, M.
(2000). Relationships between management intensity and structural and
social variables in dairy and dual-purpose systems in Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
Agricultural Systems, 65(3), 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-
521X(00)00030-5
Streule, S., Freimüller Leischtfeld, S., Galler, M., Motzer, D., Poulose-Züst, M.,
& Miescher Schwenninger, S. (2023). Variations in Ecuadorian Cocoa
Fermentation and Drying at Two Locations: Implications for Quality and
Sensory. Foods, 13(1), 137. https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/13/1/137
