Keywords:

Photogrammetry

Drone

Laser

Microclimate mapping

Forestry

Review

Review of microclimate mapping methods in forestry

Revisión de métodos de mapeo de microclimas en el ámbito forestal

Revisão de métodos de mapeamento de microclimas no ambiente orestal

Manuel Sánchez-Chero

José Antonio Sánchez-Chero

Lesly Carolina

Flores-Mendoza

Felix Navarro Janampa

Devyn Omar Donayre Hernández

Mary Flor Cesare Coral

Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e254204

ISSN 2477-9407

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/ RevFacAgron(LUZ).v42.n1.IV

Crop production

Associate editor: Dra. Rosa Razz

University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy

Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

Facultad de Ingeniería de Industrias Alimentarias y

Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional de Frontera. Sullana,

Perú.

Facultad de Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Ambientales,

Universidad Nacional de Frontera, Sullana, Perú.

Universidad Nacional de Ucayali, Ucayali, Perú.

Departamento de Química de la Universidad Nacional

Agraria La Molina, Lima, Perú.

Received: 27-07-2024

Accepted: 14-11-2024

Published: 25-12-2024

Abstract

The study of microclimates provides a several benets that

imply their importance to reduce the eects of climate change,

so the mapping of microclimates emerges as an alternative for

their identication and conservation. The objective of this review

is to identify the techniques used in microclimate mapping. The

methodology used was an exploratory review in databases such

as Science Direct, Springer and IEEXplore, which determined

that there is a shortage of works related to microclimate mapping,

since only 19 works met the inclusion requirements of the review.

It was determined that the main objective of the microclimate

mapping focused on the tree canopy, the height and density of

the forest structures and their eects on the climatic factors that

comprise them. On the other hand, the microclimate mapping

methods identied were divided into photogrammetric methods

and laser scanning methods, where most of the studies were based

on obtaining aerial data, either by drones (UAV, UAS, RPA, RPAS)

or airplanes as in the case of airborne LiDAR technologies. It was

concluded that there is little research on microclimate mapping, so

the forestry scientic community is exhorted to employ the dierent

methodologies for objectives of great impact on the environment

such as the prediction of forest res and the monitoring of forest

restoration after these res.

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e254204 January-March. ISSN 2477-9407.

2-6 |

Resumen

El estudio de los microclimas presenta una serie de benecios que

implican su importancia para reducir los efectos del cambio climático,

por lo que el mapeo de estos surge como una alternativa para su

identicación y conservación. Siendo el objetivo de esta revisión la

identicación de técnicas empleadas en el mapeo de microclimas.

La metodología empleada fue una revisión exploratoria en bases de

datos como Science Direct, Springer y IEEXplore, determinando

que existe una escasez respecto a trabajos relacionados al mapeo de

microclimas, ya que solo 19 trabajos cumplieron con los requisitos

de inclusión para la revisión. Se determinó que el objetivo principal

de la cartografía microclimática se centraba en el dosel arbóreo, la

altura y la densidad de las estructuras forestales y sus efectos sobre

los factores climáticos que las componen. Por otro lado, los métodos

de cartografía microclimática identicados se dividieron en métodos

fotogramétricos y métodos de escaneo láser, donde la mayoría de los

estudios se basaron en la recopilación de datos aéreos, ya sea mediante

drones (UAV, UAS, RPA, RPAS) o aeronaves como en el caso de las

tecnologías LiDAR aerotransportadas. Se concluyó que existen pocas

investigaciones sobre el mapeo de microclimas, por lo que se exhorta

a la comunidad cientíca del ámbito forestal a emplear las diversas

metodologías para objetivos de gran impacto en el ambiente como es

la predicción de incendios forestales y seguimiento de restauración de

bosques luego de estos.

Palabras clave: fotogrametría, dron, láser, mapeo de microclimas,

forestal.

Resumo

O estudo dos microclimas apresenta uma série de benefícios que

implicam em sua importância na redução dos efeitos das mudanças

climáticas, de modo que o mapeamento destes surge como uma

alternativa para sua identicação e conservação. O objetivo desta

revisão é identicar as técnicas utilizadas no mapeamento de

microclimas. A metodologia utilizada foi uma revisão exploratória

em bases de dados como Science Direct, Springer e IEEXplore,

determinando que existe uma escassez de artigos relacionados com

o mapeamento de microclimas, uma vez que apenas 19 artigos

cumpriram os requisitos de inclusão para revisão. O foco principal

do mapeamento microclimático foi identicado como sendo o

mapeamento da copa das árvores, da altura e da densidade das estruturas

orestais e seus efeitos sobre os fatores climáticos constituintes. Por

outro lado, os métodos de mapeamento microclimático identicados

foram divididos em métodos fotogramétricos e métodos de varredura

a laser, sendo que a maioria dos estudos se baseou na coleta de dados

aéreos, seja por drones (UAV, UAS, RPA, RPAS) ou aeronaves, como

no caso das tecnologias LiDAR aéreas. Concluiu-se que há pouca

pesquisa sobre mapeamento de microclima, portanto, a comunidade

cientíca orestal é incentivada a usar as várias metodologias para

objetivos de grande impacto sobre o meio ambiente, como a previsão

de incêndios orestais e o monitoramento da restauração orestal

após esses incêndios.

Palavras-chave: fotogrametria, drone, laser, cartograa

microclimática, silvicultura.

Introduction

In recent years, microclimates have been an important factor of

study to try to mitigate some of the problems generated by climate

change (Carnicer et al., 2021), so their identication and mapping

would be of vital importance to undertake actions for the conservation

of species in a given territory. The localization of microclimates in

forest areas, allows the identication of spaces within ecosystems

that present critical climatic conditions in order to prioritize their

management to prevent ecosystem degradation (De Frenne et al.,

2021) and the identication of endemic species in a territory, thus

allowing the generation of an approach based on conservation and

restoration (Hu et al., 2024; Ulrey et al., 2016).

Mapping is one of the methods used to identify and locate

microclimates in the forest and geographic environment, which

makes it possible to know the extensions and characteristics of a

specic territory. This is where techniques such as photogrammetry

come into play, which allows recording and measuring objects from

images, which are superimposed to generate three-dimensional

models of landscapes or organisms (Ferrari et al., 2021; Gruen, 2021;

Kudela et al., 2020).

In recent years, mapping techniques have evolved with

technological advances, currently traditional photogrammetric

methods have been replaced by the use of unmanned aerial vehicles

or drones because they represent a less expensive alternative

(Elkhrachy, 2021; Jiménez-Jiménez et al., 2021; Qubaa et al., 2022),

the same has happened with methods employing lasers where sensors

are implemented in these vehicles as a less expensive tool to the use

of light aircraft (Di Stefano et al., 2021; Kovanič et al., 2023; Puliti

et al., 2020).

Studies on microclimate mapping are diverse, ranging from the

study of urban to forest microclimates, using dierent methods (aerial,

satellite and laser) and making it dicult for researchers to nd suitable

mapping methods for their research. So far, no systematic review of an

exploratory type that synthesizes the available microclimate mapping

methods has been found. Therefore, this review was conducted with

the purpose of identifying these techniques and determining the main

objectives of the authors when mapping microclimates.

Methods

A scoping review was used in order to generate a synthesis of the

existing evidence and identify advances and gaps in research on the

use of photogrammetry for microclimate mapping. For this purpose,

the guide generated by Arksey and O’Malley (2005) was used, which

explains in detail the steps for conducting this type of review and

which are summarized in gure 1.

Figure 1. Steps for conducting a scoping systematic review.

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Sánchez-Chero et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e254204

3-6 |

Research objectives

Six objectives were determined, (1) identify the volume of

studies published on the subject in the last 10 years, (2) determine the

geographic scope of the publications, (3) identify the types of studies

and research methods that have been used, (4) identify the objectives

of the researchers in mapping microclimates, (5) identify what

photogrammetry techniques have been employed for microclimate

mapping, (6) identify other techniques that are being employed for

microclimate mapping.

Databases and search strategies

Databases such as Science Direct, Springer and IEEXplore were

used. For the search in these databases, Boolean operators such

as AND and OR were used, along with search modiers such as

quotation marks and parentheses, in order to make the search more

specic. Key words included terms such as “photogrammetry”,

“3D forest microclimate mapping” or “microclimate mapping”. The

search was limited to articles published between 2014 and 2023.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion and exclusion criteria were determined based on the

research objectives, which are presented in table 1.

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria

Time

interval

Published between January 2014

to December 2023

Published before 2014

Type of

publication

Original research articles

Review articles.

Conference proceedings and

abstracts

Books

Book chapters

Websites

Language English All other languages

Subjects

Photogrammetry methods

Mapping of forest microclimates

3D microclimate maps

Other mapping methods

Non-forest microclimate

mapping

Selected articles and data extraction

The data were extracted using a standardized matrix in the

Microsoft Excel program, which was used to compile information

such as the title of the article, year of publication, name of the

journal, eld of research, country, type of publication, objectives of

the study, photogrammetric methods used for mapping, objectives

of the researchers when mapping microclimates, and other mapping

techniques used by the authors. The article selection stage is

summarized in gure 2.

Discussion

After the search in databases using the selected search terms for

the review, and after its suitability evaluation using the inclusion and

exclusion criteria, 19 articles were nally obtained for the review,

published between 2014 and 2023 (gure 3).

Figure 2. PRISMA diagram for systematic reviews.

Figure 3. Year of publication of articles included in the exploratory

review.

It was identied that, among the articles found, all belong

to scientic journals. The documents published under journals

correspond to a wide range of scientic elds such as: environmental

sciences, nature conservation, environmental management, ecology,

computer sciences, engineering, earth and planetary sciences,

agricultural and biological sciences.

Regarding the type of publications, 80 % (n=16) correspond to

research articles and 20 % (n=3) to review articles. On the other hand,

regarding the geographic distribution of the authors of the 19 selected

articles, it was identied that the largest number of publications have

been made by collaborations between authors from dierent countries

(n=6), on the other hand, the country with more publications is Canada

(n=3), then France (n=2) and with only 1 article there are countries

such as UK, USA, Netherlands, Mexico and Switzerland (gure 4).

Figure 4. Year of publication of articles included in the exploratory

review.

On the other hand, there is a tendency of greater interest in the

study of microclimate mapping by authors who research under

institutions (mainly universities) of the European continent with 11

nationalities, in second place, the American continent and Asia with

4 nationalities each and nally Oceania with one, which is similar to

the estimates found in other reviews related to mapping in forest areas

(Nitoslawski et al., 2021).

Microclimate mapping objectives

To comprehend the objectives of mapping a microclimate,

it is important to understand that a microclimate comprises a set

of climatic conditions in specic areas; these conditions include

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e254204 January-March. ISSN 2477-9407.

4-6 |

temperature, light availability, wind speed and humidity (Mislan and

Helmuth, 2008). In forestry, the so-called tree canopy directly aects

the microclimate it covers, where the quantity and quality of light

obtained will depend on the tree density and height of these, also

aecting the temperature and humidity of the microclimate, hence

the main objective of the works found in this review is based on

the mapping of the tree canopy. Table 2 shows the objectives of the

research included in the review. The following are the main study

objectives of the authors when mapping microclimates:

Canopy height and light availability

Authors such as Chung and Huang (2020) mapped trees in

a mountainous region of Taiwan, and monitored for a period of

four years (2010-2013), allowing them to investigate the eects of

topography and microclimate factors in the region on tree growth

and health. Brüllhardt et al. (2020) and Parent and Volin (2014) used

mapping to generate models of vegetation height and canopy closure

in order to estimate the availability of light in the studied forest space,

due to its importance in the growth processes of plant structures.

Post forest re analysis

Smith-Tripp et al. (2022) studied forest canopy height at the

growth stage and microclimate on a monthly basis in a burned forest in

British Columbia, where mapping determined that a 10 m decrease in

canopy height, with respect to the approximate dierence between the

low- and high-severity burned portions, resulted in a 1.8 °C increase

in soil temperature, an important factor that can aect the growth of

certain forest species. According to Nuijten et al. (2023), the mapping

of plant composition is a vital aspect for planning, implementing and

monitoring the restoration of forest areas in the succession stage after

being aected by re. Other authors (Fernandez-Manso et al., 2019),

generated post-re maps to be used by forest managers as tools to

identify patterns that inuence the severity of the burns generated and

to propose appropriate response plans after these events.

Temperature damping or amplication

Villani et al. (2021) and Glasmann et al. (2023) mapped

microclimates in order to determine the inuence of tree density on

microclimates, analyzing the relationship between soil temperature

and canopy cover, determining that in areas with higher tree cover,

soil temperature decreased by up to 1.32 °C. On the other hand,

Gril et al. (2023) and Kašpar et al. (2021) point out that mapping

the amplication or buering of temperatures of a microclimate

has an important eect on climate change, since it allows for an

understanding of thermoregulation processes, proposing species

redistribution models, detecting micro refuges for conservation,

acquiring information that allows for forest re control and generating

tree regeneration plans.

Quantication of forest structures

Articles by authors such as Kissling et al. (2022) and Qi et

al. (2022) propose mapping as a method of quantication and

analysis of forest structures, because a strong forest structure aects

the functioning and resilience of forest species, ecosystems and

microclimates.

The results showed that the main objective of the researchers when

mapping microclimates was focused on the study of the tree canopy

and its eects on the main microclimatic factors such as temperature

and solar availability, since as mentioned by other authors such as

Nakamura et al. (2017) the tree canopy is responsible for the formation

of microclimates by generating the attenuation and buering of the

climatic conditions of a space, hence the articles obtained emphasize

this study. On the other hand, two articles were found where the main

objective was to study post forest re conditions with the purpose

of following up reforestation measures, this objective is supported

by Pérez-Cabello et al. (2021) who mentions that monitoring the

dynamics of recovery after a re is of vital importance to evaluate

resilience and obtain data to improve the management of ecosystem

restoration after forest res.

Photogrammetric techniques

In general, two types of photogrammetry can be distinguished,

aerial and terrestrial, however, according to the analysis of the articles

found in the last 10 years (2014-2023) there is a signicant trend

in the use of aerial photogrammetry. Other reviews as Colica et al.

(2021) associate this trend due to the fact that aerial photogrammetry

is not only a more technological tool but also because it provides

more information in less time and avoids the exposure of surveyors

to dangerous areas. Within this type of photogrammetry, the use of

the already known drones is identied, among which three types

stand out: UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle), UAS (Unmanned Aerial

System) and RPA (Remotely Piloted Aircraft), in addition to the use

of satellite images.

Other techniques used for microclimate mapping

During the search for articles in the selected databases (n=19), a

large number of papers using non-photogrammetric techniques for

microclimate mapping were identied, being the number of articles

of this type greater (N=13) than those that used and mentioned

photogrammetry (n=8). These techniques are based on the use of

laser technology, of which LiDAR, mobile laser scanning (MLS) and

terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) stand out. Authors such as Moon et

al. (2019) point out that LiDAR techniques present higher accuracy

and very high-quality data compared to traditional methods, however,

it is of higher cost than photogrammetry due to the high accuracy

and technology that accompanies the technique. Other authors such

as Kangas et al. (2018) point out that, between photogrammetric

methods and the use of airborne laser, the latter is better than

photogrammetry only if the acquired data are to be used for up to

15 years before acquiring new data, otherwise the accuracy of both

techniques is high, being able to employ aerial photogrammetry as a

cheaper alternative to LiDAR.

Conclusions

A paucity of research related to microclimate mapping has been

identied in the last decade, even though the technique has been

modernized with the use of drones and lasers. Although, as identied

in the present review, there are a variety of techniques for microclimate

mapping, the suitability of each of these will depend greatly on the

objectives to be achieved, since in general, aerial techniques are

preferable for studying the tree canopy, while terrestrial techniques

are more useful when modeling vertical tree structures. Also, the

research was only based on documents in the English language, so

for future reviews the use of databases with information in other

languages could broaden the picture of the use of these mapping

methods in other countries. On the other hand, one of the objectives of

microclimate mapping that has been little evaluated and whose study

would be of vital importance for the protection of microclimates is its

use as a method of forest re prevention and monitoring in post-re

actions, either to identify factors that inuence the severity of burns or

to follow up on post-re restoration actions. This specic objective of

the study of microclimates and their eect on the prevention of forest

res may represent a great opportunity for researchers in European

countries such as Turkey, Spain, Italy and South America (countries

that constitute the Amazon region), which in recent years have been

the most aected by forest res, and that according to the ndings of

this review, the study of microclimate in these countries has not been

considered as a method of forest re prevention.

This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.

Sánchez-Chero et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2025, 42(1): e254204

5-6 |

Table 2. Table of methods and objectives of the selected research studies.

Photogrammetric

technique

Type Objectives

Tree species or

forest types

Country

Author

Arial

U AV

Canopy height and light availability Temperate forest Switzerland

Brüllhardt et al. (2020)

Review Zellweger et al. (2019)

Soil temperature damping

Agroforestry Tanzania

Villani et al. (2021)

Eects of topography and microclimate factors

on tree growth and health

Tropical forests

Taiwan

Chung and Huang (2020)

Review - -

Duy et al. (2021)

UAS Soil temperature amplication and damping Temperate forest Czechia

Kašpar et al. (2021)

RPA Post forest re analysis

Sub-boreal spruce

ecosystem

Canada

Smith-Tripp et al. (2022)

RPAS Post forest re analysis Boreal forests Canada

Nuijten et al. (2023)

Satellite

Sentinel-1

Sentinel-2

Soil temperature damping

Temperate mountain

forests

Germany

Glasmann et al. (2023)

Laser

LiDAR

Canopy height and light availability

Temperate decidu-

ous forests

USA

Parent and Volin (2014)

Post forest re analysis

Mediterranean

forests

Spain Fernandez-Manso et al.

(2019)

Review - -

Zellweger et al. (2019)

Forest structure quantication temperate forest Canada

Qi et al. (2022)

Review - -

Camarretta et al. (2019)

Soil temperature amplication and damping

lowland temperate

forest

France

Gril et al. (2023)

Soil temperature amplication and damping temperate forest Czechia

Kašpar et al. (2021)

Forest structure quantication

temperate forest Netherlands

Kissling et al. (2022)

TLS

Review - -

Zellweger et al. (2019)

Forest structure quantication

cypress forest France Yépez-Rincón et al. (2021)

Forest structure quantication

Trees Peru, Indonesia,

and Guyana

Lin et al. (2023)

MLS Forest structure quantication temperate forest Canada

Qi et al. (2022)

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