© The Authors, 2024, Published by the Universidad del Zulia*Corresponding author:lzambrano@uagraria.edu.ec
Keywords:
Irrigation water
Physicochemical quality
Microbiological quality
Phytotoxicity tests
Evaluation of groundwater quality for agricultural use in Balzar, province the Guayas, Ecuador
Evaluación de la calidad del agua subterránea para uso agrícola en Balzar, provincia del Guayas,
Ecuador
Avaliação da qualidade das águas subterrâneas para uso agrícola em Balzar Guayas, Equador
Leontes Leônidas Zambrano Barcos
1
*
Dioselina Clemencia Navarrete Chevez
1
Ángel Alberto Arce Ramírez
1
Marcos Paul Chila Zambrano
1
Kleber Efraín Medina Rodríguez
1
Athina Paola Centanaro Paredes
2
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2024, 41(2): e244117
ISSN 2477-9407
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/RevFacAgron(LUZ).v42.n2.07
Environment
Associate editor: Professor Beltrán Briceño
University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
1
Universidad Agraria del Ecuador. Guayaquil, Ecuador.
Dirección postal institucional 090104.
2
Universidad Estatal de Milagro. Milagro, Ecuador.
Dirección postal institucional 0901050.
Received: 19-02-2024
Accepted: 30-04-2024
Published: 23-05-2024
Abstract
Water is a natural and vital resource for living beings and ecosystems.
Groundwater is of great importance for human consumption and agricultural
activities, but over the years, it has become an increasingly scarce resource.
The objective of this research was to evaluate the quality of groundwater
extracted from wells used for crop irrigation in Balzar, province the Guayas,
Ecuador. Four treatments and three repetitions were used; groundwater
extracted from three wells plus a distilled water core. Physical, chemical,
microbiological analyzes and a toxicity test with dark incubation were
carried out on seeds of radish (Raphanus sativus L.), cocoa (Theobroma
cacao L.) and corn (Zea mays L.). Turbidity exceeded permitted levels under
TULSMA regulations and bicarbonate and chlorine levels exceeded the
permitted limit. The microbiological analysis reected fecal coliform values
above 1000 UFC.100 mL
-1
of water, indicating the presence of contaminants
in the water sources. Phytotoxicity tests carried out with radish seeds showed
a stimulation of radicle growth in well one and mild toxicity in wells two and
three. For cocoa and corn seeds, moderate and mild toxicity was evident,
respectively in the three wells. Although the maximum permissible limits
were exceeded in some variables, the water from the three wells can be
used for irrigation; however, there is a need to take measures to improve the
quality of the water in these wells.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2024, 41(2): e244117 April-June. ISSN 2477-9407.
2-6 |
Resumen
El agua es un recurso natural y vital para los seres vivos y los
ecosistemas. Las aguas subterráneas son de gran importancia para el
consumo humano y actividades agrícolas, pero con los años, se ha
convertido en un recurso cada vez más escaso. El objetivo de esta
investigación fue evaluar la calidad del agua subterránea extraída
de pozos utilizados para el riego de cultivos en Balzar, provincia de
Guayas, Ecuador. Se utilizaron cuatro tratamientos y tres repeticiones;
agua subterránea extraída de tres pozos, más un testigo de agua
destilada. Se realizaron análisis físicos, químicos, microbiológicos y
un ensayo de totoxicidad con incubación en oscuridad a semillas
de rábano (Raphanus sativus L.), cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) y
maíz (Zea mays L.). La turbidez superó los niveles permitidos según
las regulaciones TULSMA y los niveles de bicarbonatos y cloro
excedieron el límite permitido. El análisis microbiológico reejó
valores de coliformes fecales por encima de 1000 UFC.100 mL
-1
de agua, indicando la presencia de contaminantes en las fuentes de
agua. Las pruebas de toxicidad realizadas con semillas de rábano
mostraron un estímulo en el crecimiento de la radícula en el pozo uno
y toxicidad leve en los pozos dos y tres. Para las semillas de cacao y
maíz se evidenció toxicidad moderada y leve, respectivamente en los
tres pozos. Pese a que se superaron los límites máximos permisibles
en algunas variables, el agua de los tres pozos puede ser utilizada
para riego, sin embargo, existe la necesidad de tomar medidas para
mejorar la calidad del agua en estos pozos.
Palabras clave: agua de riego, calidad sicoquímica, calidad
microbiológica, pruebas de totoxicidad.
Resumo
A água é um recurso natural e vital para os seres vivos e
ecossistemas. As águas subterrâneas são de grande importância para
o consumo humano e para as atividades agrícolas, mas ao longo
dos anos tornaram-se um recurso cada vez mais escasso. O objetivo
desta pesquisa foi avaliar a qualidade da água subterrânea extraída
de poços utilizados para irrigação de culturas em Balzar, Guayas,
Equador. Foram utilizados quatro tratamentos e três repetições; água
subterrânea extraída de três poços mais um núcleo de água destilada.
Foram realizadas análises físicas, químicas, microbiológicas e teste
de toxicidade com incubação no escuro em sementes de rabanete
(Raphanus sativus L.), cacau (Theobroma cacao L.) e milho (Zea mays
L.). A turbidez excedeu os níveis permitidos pelas regulamentações
da TULSMA e os níveis de bicarbonato e cloro excederam o limite
permitido. A análise microbiológica reetiu valores de coliformes
fecais acima de 1000 UFC.100 mL
-1
de água, indicando presença de
contaminantes nos mananciais. Testes de totoxicidade realizados
com sementes de rabanete mostraram estímulo ao crescimento de
radículas no poço um e leve toxicidade nos poços dois e três. Para
sementes de cacau e milho, foi evidente toxicidade moderada e
leve, respectivamente, nos três poços. Embora os limites máximos
permitidos tenham sido ultrapassados em algumas variáveis, a
água dos três poços pode ser utilizada para irrigação, no entanto, há
necessidade de tomar medidas para melhorar a qualidade da água
nestes poços.
Palavras-chave: água de irrigação, qualidade físico-química,
qualidade microbiológica, testes de totoxicidad.
Introduction
Water is a basic human right; however, its quality continues
to be a problem in dierent areas. The evaluation of water quality
allows control, treatment and mitigation actions to be taken, seeking
to guarantee the supply of safe water (Valenzuela and Yucra, 2021).
Water is a natural resource destined to fulll dierent functions
that contribute to the sustainability and survival of living beings
(Castillo et al., 2022). It is a vital resource for living beings and their
ecosystems, which is why comprehensive management should be
made with emphasis on a sustainable world (Fuerte, 2019).
For Gutiérrez et al. (2022), groundwater is an important source
of water for human consumption, crop irrigation, industrial use,
among others, but it is becoming an increasingly scarce resource. The
assessment of groundwater quality becomes relevant for activities
that require its use, especially agriculture, which, according to the
Statistics Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations [FAOSTAT] (2018), accounts for 70 % of the
freshwater withdrawn in the world.
Water quality includes an assessment of its physicochemical
and biological properties, as well as the eects that may inuence
the health of aquatic systems and humans. Population growth,
pollution, surface leaching, runo, and extensive use of fertilizers
in agricultural areas are considered the main causes of groundwater
quality deterioration (Kumar et al., 2021).
Groundwater is a resource that provides development opportunities
to Balzar, with great importance for irrigation in dierent crops found
in the area; being of great help in economic and social aspects, among
others. For Llerena et al. (2017) the importance of irrigation water
lies in the fact that agriculture is one of the activities that consumes
large amounts of water, due to the fact that irrigation of crops needs
water daily for them to develop. According to Grammont (2010), crop
yields that can be obtained with irrigation can be more than double
those that can be obtained in rainfed conditions.
For Kaloterakis et al. (2021) irrigation water quality inuences
soil salt content. The salinity content of irrigation water has an impact
on plant growth. The slope of the land aects the increase of salinity
content in the water of rivers and reservoirs, due to soil erosion, which
transports minerals to rivers and subway aquifers.
The quality of water in rivers, groundwater and reservoirs depends
on several factors, such as general geology, ion exchange, degree of
mineral weathering, evaporation, groundwater ow and dierent
human activities. Groundwater in dierent areas may have dierent
qualities and properties for agricultural use (Pant et al., 2021).
In another context, and as mentioned above, in the province of
Guayas, specically in La Carlota area of Balzar canton, there are
dierent crops that are irrigated with groundwater extracted from
wells, including radish (Raphanus sativus L.), a plant belonging to
the Brassicaceae family, corn (Zea mays L.) of the Poaceae family,
and cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), a perennial plant of the Malvaceae
family.
Accordingly, it is necessary to review the quality of groundwater
used for irrigation purposes in order to apply corrective measures
where necessary. The objective of this research was to evaluate the
quality of groundwater from wells used for crop irrigation in La
Carlota area of the Balzar canton, Guayas province, Ecuador.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Zambrano et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2024 41(2): e244117
3-6 |
Materials and Methods
Description of the study area
The study was conducted in three groundwater catchment points
located in La Carlota precinct of Balzar canton, Guayas province,
Ecuador. Average annual temperature of 25 °C and precipitation of
1,500 mm per year [Instituto Nacional de Metereología e Hidrología
(INAMHI), 2018].
The coordinates, elevation with respect to sea level (masl) and
distance, are presented in table 1.
Table 1. Location of the collection points, La Carlota of the Balzar
canton, province of Guayas, Ecuador.
Wells Latitude Longitude Elevation (masl) Distance (m)
1 1°9’38.90”S 79°45’54.55”O 63 P1-P2 (641)
2 1°9’41.41”S 79°46’15.19”O 58 P2-P3 (631)
3 1°9’18.44”S 79°45’55.63”O 52 P3-P1 (929)
Research type and design
The research was of an applied type (Galindo, 2020). The design
was non-experimental, transectional, since specic samples were
taken to analyze microbiological and physicochemical parameters
and determine their quality. Phenomena are observed as they occur in
their natural context, and then analyzed or compared with a standard.
Transectional designs collect data at a single point in time. Their
purpose is to describe variables and analyze their incidence and
interrelationship at a given time. Four treatments and three replicates
were evaluated. The treatments corresponded to water from each of
the wells, plus a distilled water control.
Groundwater sampling
Irrigation water was extracted by pumping (Altamira pump, model
Flux 12, Mexico), letting out the initial ow at 20 L.s
-1
for 5 min.
Subsequently, it was poured into a container to achieve homogeneity.
For the physicochemical analyses, 3 samples of 1 L were collected for
each well. The samples were collected in sterile, hermetically sealed
plastic bottles to avoid oxidation of the compounds in contact with
air. For microbiological analyses, 3 samples of 0.75 L were collected
for each well. In this case, sterile glass containers (Ilmabor, model
TGI 1000 mL, Germany) were used.
Physical, chemical and microbiological analyses
The analyses were performed at the microbiology laboratory of
the Universidad Agraria del Ecuador. The water quality of the wells
used for irrigation was determined through sampling and subsequent
physical, chemical and microbiological analyses and a phytotoxicity
test. Water quality characterization was performed based on the
reference values proposed in the exto Unicado de Legislación de
Medio Ambiente, TULSMA (Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador,
2016).
The physical variables evaluated were temperature (°C), electrical
conductivity (EC) (dS.m
-1
), total dissolved solids (TDS) (mg.L
-1
),
turbidity (UNT) and hardness (mg.L
-1
). With the exception of turbidity
and hardness, all of the above parameters were measured in situ.
Temperature was measured with a thermometer (model E5565AS1,
Femometer, United States of America), pH with a portable digital pH
meter (HACH, model HQ11D, United States of America). A portable
conductivity meter (HACH, model Q14D, United States of America)
was used to measure electrical conductivity and dissolved solids.
The chemical variables evaluated were the concentration of
Ca
2+
, Na
+
, Mn
2+
, CO
3
2-
, HCO
3
3-
, Cl
-
, SO
4
2-
, NO
3
-,
Fe
2+
, B
3+
, pH and
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). These analyses were performed at
the Laboratorio de Análisis de Suelos, Tejidos Vegetales y Aguas
de la Estación Experimental Tropical Pichilingue “INIAP” (Atomic
Absorption method and EPA 6020 method, respectively). The
microbiological variables evaluated were total coliforms and fecal
coliforms, which are a sub-group of total coliforms, represented
by heat-resistant microorganisms that are specic to the intestinal
tract of warm-blooded animals, including humans. Among these
bacteria are Escherichia coli and species of the genera Klebsiella,
Enterobacter and Citrobacter. The samples were taken to the
laboratory “AGROLAB”, the determination of coliform bacteria was
performed by the multi-tube fermentation method of APHA et al.
(2017), with results expressed in MPN.100 mL
-1
.
Toxicity and germination tests
To test the phytotoxic eect of the groundwater extracted from
the wells analyzed, the method proposed by Rodríguez et al. (2014)
was used. Twenty radish, corn and cocoa seeds (because they are
established crops in the area where the evaluated wells are located)
were placed in a Petri dish with lter paper (Cytiva, model R201,
Germany) moistened with 10 mL of the water samples to be evaluated.
The plates were incubated in darkness for 4 days in the microbiology
laboratory. Relative germination (GRS) (Equation 1), relative radicle
growth (RGR) (Equation 2) and germination index (GI) (Equation 3)
were determined.
The normalized residual germination index (NGI) (Equation 4)
and the root elongation index (REI) (Equation 5) were calculated
according to Bagur et al. (2011). Both indexes establish toxicity
values from -1 to 0, which are categorized as follows: between 0 and
-0.25, low toxicity; between -0.25 to -0.5, moderate toxicity; between
-0.5 and -0.75, high toxicity; and between -0.75 and -1, very high
toxicity. Values above 0 indicate root growth or hormesis (Bagur et
al., 2011).
(4)
Data processing and analysis
The data obtained were transcribed in the Excel program. An
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s mean comparison test,
with a condence level of 95 %, were performed for the phytotoxicity
test. The statistical test was performed individually for each species.
The statistical package Statical Analisys System (SAS
®
) (SAS, 2014)
was used for data processing.
=
∗ 100 1
(2)
=
ℎ
ℎ
∗ 100 1
=
∗ 100
1
(3)
=
−
1
(4)
=
ℎ − ℎ
ℎ
1
(5)
(1)
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Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2024, 41(2): e244117 April-June. ISSN 2477-9407.
4-6 |
Results and discussion
Physical, chemical and microbiological analyses
The physical analyses reected that turbidity and total solids were
presented below the ranges for the three wells. Table 2 presents the
results of the analyses of the physical parameters and the appropriate
ranges established in the TULSMA (Ministerio del Ambiente del
Ecuador, 2016) for irrigation water.
Table 2. Physical analysis of groundwater extracted from wells
evaluated in the province of Guayas, Ecuador.
Variables Well 1 Well 2 Well 3
Required ranges for
irrigation water*
Temperature (°C) 27.1 26.7 27.4 20 – 40
Turbidite (UNT) 3.3 13.6 15.6 100
STD (mg.L
-1
) 47.0 62.0 66.0 450 – 2000
EC (dS.m
-1
) 0.13 0.10 0.13 0 – 3
Hardness (mg.L
-1
) 42.0 51.0 55.0 0 – 500
TDS: total dissolved solids.
*TULSMA (Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador, 2016).
These results coincided with those reported by Castillo et
al. (2022) regarding temperature between 25.5 °C and 27.4 °C;
indicating, that temperature levels are an indicator of water quality
which, in turn, exerts direct inuence on the behavior of other quality
indicators, such as the absence of oxygen, pH, electrical conductivity,
among others.
All the values reected should be considered from the agricultural
point of view, since the use of the resource in unsuitable conditions
could represent a source of inoculum of phytopathogens. Brousett et
al. (2018) indicated that high turbidity values can inuence the rate
of bacterial proliferation, protecting microorganisms from the eects
of disinfection and stimulating their development. High turbidity is
related to high sediment content, which can be negative for localized
irrigation systems, due to clogging.
Another aspect to highlight is the low salinity in the three
wells analyzed. The values recorded are lower than those reported
by Castellón et al. (2015), who evaluated groundwater from wells
intended for irrigation, nding that in all samples, the water did not
exceed 0.7 dS.m
-1
, qualifying them as high quality for agricultural
use.
The groundwater extracted from the three wells can be used for
irrigation; however, there is a need to evaluate the situation presented
in some parameters to improve water quality. In this sense, Conde et
al. (2023) pointed out that irrigation alternatives should be sought
that allow greater water productivity, evaluating the amount of water
applied to crops through irrigation, with a control of the irrigation
regime, the volume of water applied and the yield.
Table 3 shows the results of the chemical analyses and the
maximum permissible limits according to the regulations established
in the TULSMA. In this aspect, potassium (K
+
) stands out in well
one, with a concentration of 2.34 mg.L
-1
, exceeding the maximum
permissible limit (mg.L
-1
). This could be attributed to the edaphic
fertilization and leaching that occurred during the planting of short-
cycle crops prior to sampling. Kumar et al. (2021) reported that
leaching and the permanent use of chemical fertilizers inuence the
detriment of groundwater quality.
Table 3. Chemical variables of groundwater extracted from wells
evaluated in the province of Guayas, Ecuador.
Variables
(mg.L
-1
)
Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 Permissible limit*
Ca
2+
15.70 10.90 14.60 100
Mn
2+
0.04 0.03 0.05 0.2
Na
+
3.59 2.09 4.44 3.0 - 9.0
K
+
1.56 2.34 1.56 2
HCO
3
3+
43.90 29.30 46.40 1.5 - 8.5
Cl
+
17.50 14.00 17.50 4 – 10
SO
4
2+
2.00 3.40 3.50 250
Fe
2+
0.33 0.78 0.51 5
B
3+
0.05 0.05 0.06 0.75 – 1
pH 7.00 7.00 7.40 6.5 – 8.4
RAS (meq.L
-1
) 0.21 0.14 0.26 3 – 9
*TULSMA (Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador, 2016).
A high concentration of bicarbonates was observed in the three
wells, signicantly exceeding the maximum permissible limit of
8.5 mg.L
-1
(table 3). Irrigation with this type of water can limit the
production of certain fruit trees, due to the increase in pH it causes in
the soil. The magnitude of this eect depends on the concentration of
bicarbonates, the buering capacity of the soil and the sensitivity of
the referenced plant (Bennardi et al., 2018). Cl
-
was another element
that exceeded the maximum permissible limits. Gutiérrez et al.
(2022) indicated that irrigating with water with high Cl
-
content, can
be detrimental to soil micro fauna, in addition to having a deleterious
eect on roots, inhibiting nutrient uptake. Alcívar et al. (2017) in their
research in Ecuador in well water samples, reported values above
the maximum limit allowed by TULSMA, such as hardness, total
dissolved solids, ammonium, aluminum and nitrates.
Since the levels of Ca
2+
and Na
+
were very low (table 3), from a
chemical point of view, there would be no major problem for the use
of these wells for irrigation. These values dier from those reported
by Bagur et al. (2011), who obtained high levels of salts derived from
Ca
2+
and Na
+
, which are highly soluble, thus limiting the increase
in the sodium adsorption ratio. Mn
2+
was found to be within the
permissible range of agrua for irrigation.
Table 4 shows the results of the microbiological analysis and the
maximum permissible limits according to the regulations established
in the TULSMA. The microbiological analysis revealed that there is
a high level of fecal coliforms, exceeding the maximum permissible
limit in the three wells; in this sense, Ríos et al. (2017) pointed out
that nding total and fecal coliforms in irrigation water, conrms that
these as indicators, evidence that the quality of the water resource
is aected, being able to cause various diseases such as diarrheal
syndrome, so it is necessary to have strategies that allow an adequate
management of it.
Although these values do not necessarily represent a risk for
agricultural use, the associated dangers for human health and
the environment should be considered. Water contaminated with
coliforms should be restricted for agricultural use. The origin of
this contamination could be due to wastewater management in the
communities settled in the study area, where sanitation is precarious
and sewerage is nonexistent, so that households must manage their
waste through septic tanks, latrines, among others.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Zambrano et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2024 41(2): e244117
5-6 |
Table 4. Microbiological variables of groundwater extracted from
wells evaluated in the province of Guayas, Ecuador.
Variables Well 1 Well 2 Well 3
Maximum allowed*
(NMP.100 mL
-1
)**
Total coliforms 20000 7000000 500000 -
Fecal coliforms 6000 500000 3000 1000
*TULSMA (Ministerio del Ambiente del Ecuador, 2016).
**Most probable number per 100 mL of water sample
Phytotoxicity test
For the means corresponding to relative germination, relative
radicle growth and germination index, there were no signicant
dierences (p>0.05) between treatments for relative germination
in R. sativus and Z. mays, while for T. cacao there were (p<0.05),
with respect to the control, which may indicate a possible hormesis
phenomenon (growth stimulation) (Bagur et al., 2011) (table 5).
Table 5. Comparison of means of phytotoxicity test variables by
species and treatment.
Species Well
Relative
germination (%)
Relative radicle
growth (%)
R. sativus 1 100.00
a
3.81
a
2 95.00
a
4.23
a
3 96.67
a
2.48
b
Distilled water 95.00
a
2.38
b
Z. mays
1 100.00
a
2.75
a
2 100.00
a
2.45
a
3 96.67
a
2.77
a
Distilled water 90.00
a
2.22
a
T. cacao 1 100.00
a
1.18
a
2 100.00
a
1.07
a
3 100.00
a
1.20
a
Distilled water 80.00
b
0.87
a
a, b
Values with the same letter in each group of data are not statistically dierent
according to Tukey’s test at 95 % reliability.
Table 6 shows the values of residual germination index and root
elongation index for the three species analyzed. The results of the
residual germination index indicated root growth in R. sativus (0.03),
T. cacao (0.67) and Z. mays (0.02) with the groundwater extracted
from the three wells. In well one, high levels of K
+
were found, while
in all three wells high levels of Cl
-
and bicarbonates were found, which
could have favored germination. On the other hand, the T. cacao and
Z. mays crops showed negative root elongation index values in all
wells, indicating a moderate level of toxicity for T. cacao and mild for
Z. mays. The R. sativus crop presented positive values for this index,
with the exception of well 2.
It is important to note that some ions, such as Na
+
, Cl
-
and B
3+
, can
accumulate in crops in high concentrations to reduce plant development
and yield, and may even cause clogging of some irrigation systems.
Likewise, the nutrients contained in the water should be considered
when making the fertilization program for each crop. According to
Illa (2016) the chloride ion is an important producer of phytotoxicity,
due to its characteristics (making it highly mobile both in the soil and
in the plant), it produces signicant reductions in growth, antagonizes
nitrate absorption, demonstrating that toxicity is directly proportional
to the concentration of chlorides.
Table 6. Residual germination and root elongation index for the
species evaluated.
Species Well IGN IER
R. sativus 1 0.03 1.61
2 0.05 -0.28
3 0.02 0.01
Z. mays 1 0.11 -0.24
2 -0.11 -0.10
3 0.07 -0.18
T. cacao 1 0.67 -0.52
2 0.67 -0.53
3 0.67 -0.41
IGN: normalized residual germination index.
IER: root elongation index.
Toxicity tests conducted with radish seeds showed stimulation of
radicle growth in well one and mild toxicity in wells two and three
(-0.28). Groundwater extracted from the three wells tested caused
moderate toxicity to cocoa seeds and mild toxicity to corn. These
results indicate the need to take measures to improve water quality in
the wells evaluated.
Conclusions
According to the physical, chemical and microbiological
analyses, the water from the three wells can be used for irrigation,
except for direct consumption crops, due to the amount of coliforms
present.
Toxicity tests with radish seeds determined growth stimulation
with water from well one and toxicity with wells two and three. Cocoa
and corn seeds showed moderate and mild toxicity respectively in all
three wells.
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