© The Authors, 2023, Published by the Universidad del Zulia*Corresponding author: rrazz@fa.edu.luz.ve
Keywords:
Use of trees
Anthropogenic activity
Greenhouse effect gases
Carbon capture
Agroforestry and its vital role in climate change mitigation in the tropics
Agroforestería y su rol vital en la mitigación del cambio climático en zonas tropicales
A agrossilvicultura e o seu papel vital naatenuação das alterações climáticas nos trópicos
Rosa Razz García*
Larry León-Medina
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agronomy,
University of Zulia.
Abstract
The activities developed by human society cause transformations on the
Earth’s surface and have the capacity to affect the functioning of the planet.
One of the main effects has been climate change, which affects the entirety
of the planet, its ecosystems, and society. The objective of this work was to
carry out a bibliographic review through the compilation of scientic articles,
book chapters, and reviews from reliable documentary sources. The review
focused on the factors that inuence climate change and its consequences.
Additionally, this work presents an alternative: the implementation and use
of agroforestry systems to mitigate climate change. This is not only because
of their potential to capture and store carbon but also to reduce the amount of
CO
2
in the atmosphere through the growth of trees and shrubs. Agroforestry
systems also have signicant implications for sustainable development due
to the social, economic, and environmental benets they provide.
Associate editor: Professor Juan Vergara-Lopez
University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Received: 07-09-2023
Accepted: 19-10-2023
Published: 08-11-2023
Rev. Fac. Agron.
(LUZ). 2023, 40(Supplement): e2340Spl02
ISSN 2477-9407
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/RevFacAgron(LUZ).v40.supl.02
Crop Production
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Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40 (Supplement): e2340Spl03. October-December. ISSN 2477-9407.2-6 |
Resumen
Las actividades desarrolladas por la sociedad humana ocasionan
transformaciones sobre la supercie terrestre y tienen la capacidad de
afectar el funcionamiento del planeta, uno de los efectos principales
ha sido el cambio climático, que afecta la globalidad del planeta,
a sus ecosistemas y a la sociedad. El objetivo del presente trabajo
fue realizar una revisión bibliográca a través de la recopilación
de artículos cientícos, capítulos de libros y revisiones de fuentes
documentales conables, sobre los factores que inciden en el cambio
climático y sus consecuencias, además de presentar como alternativa
la implementación y uso de los sistemas agroforestales para mitigar el
cambio climático, no solo por el potencial que poseen para capturar y
almacenar el carbono si no para disminuir las cantidades de CO
2
de la
atmósfera, a través del crecimiento de los árboles y arbustos, también
tienen fuertes implicaciones para el desarrollo sostenible debido a los
benecios sociales, económicos y ambientales que prestan.
Palabras clave: uso de árboles, actividad antropogénica, gases de
efecto invernadero, captura de carbono
Resumo
As atividadesdes envolvidas pela sociedade humana provocam
transformações na superfície terrestre e têm a capacidade de afetar
o funcionamento do planeta, um dos principais efeitos tem sido as
mudanças climáticas, que afetam a globalidade do planeta, seus
ecossistemas e a sociedade. O objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar
uma revisão de literatura através da compilação de artigos cientícos,
capítulos de livros e revisões de fontes documentais conáveis, sobre
os fatores que afetam as mudanças climáticas e suas conseqüências,
além de apresentar como alternativa a implantação e utilização de
sistemas agroorestais para mitigar as mudanças climáticas, nãosó
pelo potencial que possuem de capturar e armazenar carbono, mas de
reduzir as quantidades de CO
2
na atmosfera através do crescimento
de árvores e arbustos, também possuem forte simplicações para
o desenvolvimento sus sustentável devido à benefícios sociais,
econômicos e ambientais que proporcionam.
Palavras-chave: utilização de árvores, atividade antropogénica,
gases comefeito de estufa, sequestro de carbono
Introduction
In recent years, the issue of climate change has become
increasingly important due to the diversity of phenomena that have
occurred, one of the most signicant being the global temperature
increase. Additionally, the effect of greenhouse gases induced
by human activities is causing ocean warming and acidication,
melting of sea ice and glaciers, rising sea levels and an increase in
extreme weather conditions. There is currently worldwide evidence
indicating that climate change is affecting agricultural production due
to droughts, rains, oods, hurricanes and other climatic phenomena
that affect yields, infrastructure and, in general, productive capacities
in agricultural areas (Herrero et al., 2015; Babatunde et al., 2023).
Several factors have a greater or lesser impact on climate change,
including the use of fossil fuels, deforestation and agricultural
activity. According to Zaar (2021), the increased concentration of CO
2
and other atmospheric gases (CH
4
, NO
2
, among others) contributing
to the greenhouse effect has altered the balance of ecosystems
maintained
over
the
past
millennia.
The
Intergovernmental
Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC), in its March 2023 report, estimates that
the trajectory of global warming from now to 2100 is around 3.5
°C. These temperature increases have consequences for the climate
and ecosystems, including humidity and precipitation levels. The
report also
highlights
that
despite
warnings
about
the
effects
of
climate change on the earth, efforts to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions have not been sufcient.
There
are
several
ways
to
mitigate
greenhouse
gas
emissions
globally,
one
of
which
is
carbon
sequestration
through
the
implementation
of
agroforestry
and/or
silvopastoral
systems,
these
systems
represent
an
immediately
available
and
relatively
low-cost
strategy. These
well-designed
and
managed
systems
can
have
high
carbon (C) accumulation rates, and are presented as an effective tool
to mitigate climate change. FAO (2018) has mentioned that with good
agricultural
practices
in
silvopastoral
systems,
their
benets
have
been
demonstrated
to
not
only
produce
food,
but
also
to
generate
employment, contribute to food security, and mitigate the effects of
climate change.
The
objective
of
this
work
is
to
identify
the
factors
that
cause
climate change and to assess the impact of agroforestry systems on
carbon sequestration as a climate change mitigation tool.
Methodology
The article is based on a literature review; the search was mainly
focused on information generated in the last 17 years (2006-2023),
which were consulted between July and August 2023.
The compilation of scientic articles, book sections and review
articles
related
to
the
use
of
agroforestry
systems
and
their
effect
on
climate
change
in
tropical
areas
was
done
through
reliable
documentary
sources
such
as
Google
Scholar,
Redalyc,
Scielo
and
digital repositories such as CATIE (Tropical Agricultural Research and
Higher Education Center), FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations), WRI (World Resources Institute) and IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change).
The
search
elds
were
rst
the
combination
of
the
keywords
agroforestry
systems
and
climate
change,
and
then
selected
those
articles
related
to
the
factors
that
promote
climate
change,
use
of
agroforestry
systems,
greenhouse
gas
production,
and
carbon
sequestration or capture were selected.
Climate change: causes and consequences
Climate change has been dened as “an identiable and persistent
modication of the state of the climate due to natural variability or
the
effect
of
human
activity”
(Hernández,
2020).
However,
it
has
been
established
that
climate
change
is
mainly
attributed
directly
or
indirectly
to
human
activity,
which
in
some
way
alters
the
composition
of
the
atmosphere
in
addition
to
the
natural
climate
variability observed over comparable time periods (Gutman, 2009).
Numerous
factors
have
been
reported
that
inuence
climate
change in some way, with the most important ones being the burning
of fossil fuels, deforestation and animal production systems.
Fossil fuels
According
to
McKinsey’s
Global
Energy
Perspective
(2019)
report, fossil fuels are responsible for 83 % of total CO
2
emissions
and coal-red power generation alone accounts for 36 % of the total.
They also note that global energy-related emissions will peak in 2024
and decline by around 20 % by 2050, driven primarily by a decline in
coal use in the power sector.
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ow. Effects similar are the case with soil, nutrients, is directly related
to anthropogenic forest cover.
In the tropics, the deforestation caused by agricultural activities
not only has effects on soil degradation and loss of productivity, but
also contributes a quarter of the CO
2
emissions and other gases into
the atmosphere. This process causes global climatic changes that
favor the loss of biodiversity in natural forests and the imbalance of
other terrestrial ecosystems.
Animal production systems
Agriculture worldwide accounts for 25 % of greenhouse gas
emissions, including animal production systems whose source of gas
emissions is methane (CH
4
), which is a by-product of the digestive
process of ruminants, where methanogenicarchaea bacteria present
in the rumen use CO
2
and H
2
, which originate from the microbial
fermentation of plant ber, to form methane and reduce the
accumulation of H
2
in the rumen; and their contribution is considered
to be about 5 % of the total gases emitted by agricultural activity
(Benaouda et al., 2017, Soriano-Robles et al., 2018). In this sense,
Buitriago-Guillén et al. (2018), pointed out that anthropogenic
practices such as fuel burning and deforestation to increase grazing
areas, that is, replacing forests with pastures, have resulted in an
increase of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO
2
), methane
(CH
4
) and nitrous oxide (N
2
0), therefore they consider that livestock
activities are highly polluting and thatemissions represent one of the
factors contributing to current climate events.
In Latin America, the contribution to methane production is 14 %,
with Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Colombia being the countries that
contribute most to the emission of this gas, with 44.7, 22.8, 13.7 and
7 %, respectively (Stevens et al., 2014).
Research conducted by Zambrano (2022), has shown that
animal production systems have a great inuence on environmental
conditions, through the production of liquid and solid waste (feces,
slurry, biological material and by-products), in addition to the release
of gases into the atmosphere, the demand for water, the expansion of
the agricultural frontier and the reduction of biodiversity.
Another of the agronomic practices in animal production
systems that affect climate change is the use of inorganic fertilizers,
mainly nitrogenous fertilizers, since they emit nitrous oxide (NO
2
)
as a result of natural processes, volatilization and runoff, as well as
the decomposition of agricultural and animal waste. According to
González-Estrada and Camacho (2017), the use of nitrogen in the
world in agricultural and livestock activities has grown very rapidly,
so it is predicted that the corresponding emissions will increase 50 %
by 2030.
Agroforestry systems as a climate change mitigation
alternative
Mitigation is nothing more than implementing actions to reduce
the emission of greenhouse gases in order to avoid an increase in
global temperature. The use of agroforestry systems in its various
modalities emerges as an essential strategy in climate change
mitigation by capturing and storing atmospheric carbon (León, 2014).
Agroforestry is considered as “a form of land use that includes
the use or exploitation of trees of different kinds (timber, fruit,
ornamental and plantation) combined with crops and sometimes
animals” (Soriano-Robles et al., 2018). It is interdisciplinary and
the productive land use modality can be a spatial and/or temporal
interaction of woody and non-woody plant species, or woody, non-
woody and animals. When all are woody species, at least one is
managed for permanent agricultural and/or livestock production
(Ospina-Ante, 2006).
According to Mondragón (2021), the burning and use of energy
stored in fossil resources, especially those related to oil, gas and
coal, have a drastic impact on the environment, resulting in gaseous
emissions during the entire energy production process, gases such as
CO
2
, CO, SOx, NOx, H
2
S, CH
4
, among others. However, he mentions
that the gas that has the greatest environmental impact is CO
2
, due to
the large amount produced and its physical properties of radiating the
infrared frequency back to Earth, which results in the warming of the
oceans and the air near the Earth’s surface.
t has been established that one of the effects of climate change
due to greenhouse gases is the increase in the Earth’s temperature, in
recent decades it has increased about 1 °C. In addition, the production
of greenhouse gases causes atmospheric pollution, which brings
negative consequences on human health (Roca et al., 2019).
Deforestation
Forests play a fundamental role in the ow of carbon dioxide from
vegetation and soil to the atmosphere (Schlesinger and Bernhardt,
2013), representing a carbon store in both biomass and soil, larger
than that of the atmosphere.
Deforestation is a constant loss of vegetation cover due to tree
felling, a practice used by man for many years, with the purpose
of changing the use of land for other activities such as agriculture,
establishment of pastures for livestock, human settlements due to
population increase, infrastructure, among others (FAO, 2022).
According to data provided by Statista Reseach Department (2023),
between 2010 and 2019 in Latin America and the Caribbean, around
53.8 million ha covered by trees and forests have been lost. Table 1
shows the four Latin American countries with the greatest losses of
cover.
In the tropics, deforestation caused by agricultural activities not
only has effects on soil degradation and loss of productivity, but
also contributes a quarter of CO
2
emissions and other gases into the
atmosphere. This process causes climatic changes that favor the loss
of biodiversity in natural forests and the imbalance of other terrestrial
ecosystems (Alonso, 2011).
Table 1. Latin American countries with the highest forest cover
losses.
Country
Coverage loss million ha
(Period 2010-2019)
Coverage loss million ha (2021)
Brasil 2.50 (only in 2019) 2.90
Bolivia 3.80 0.55
Paraguay 3.60 0.28
Argentina 3.00 0.20
Source: Statista Reseach Deparment (2023).
This practice of deforestation, whether by human action or natural
causes (res, parasites or other factors unrelated to human activity),
has consequences on climate change, desertication, atmospheric
contamination, soil degradation, food decit and habitat loss (Cañete
et al., 2023).
According to Salgado (2014), deforestation can lead to
environmental damage; the most severe negative effect is the
disappearance of the habitat of millions of species and is a contributing
factor to climate change. He also points out that as forests disappear,
the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere will increase
and the speed and severity of climate change will increase. Similarly,
Echeverría et al., (2006) report that deforestation affects the
hydrological cycle, reducing evapotranspiration and increasing water
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Mombasa) with different dispersed tree species (silvopastoral systems,
SSP1 and SSP2, respectively), contained greater accumulated
carbon in the aerial biomass (2.18 ± 1.13 and 4.51 ± 3.76 t C.ha
-1
,
respectively) than the native grass (Bothriochloa pertusa (L.) A. Camus)
(0.19 ± 0.09 t C.ha
-1
). The results showed that the silvopastoral systems
were able to accumulate atmospheric carbon in aboveground biomass
seventeen times more than a traditional production system.
Subterranean carbon sequestration by agroforestry systems
Soil has been considered as one of the resources with the highest
susceptibility to climate change, degradation and biodiversity loss
(FAO, 2017). Despite this, it has been considered that after the
oceans, soils are the largest carbon sinks, signicantly offsetting CO
2
emissions (Lefevre et al., 2017). Soil also harbors a signicant pool
of organic carbon. Roots exude organic compounds, promoting the
formation of aggregates that retain carbon in the soil. Although it is
difcult to quantify soil carbon due to heterogeneity, its long-term
stability is essential.
Soil is a large carbon sink with a capacity to sequester between
20 - 26 t C.ha
-1
at a depth of 20 cm (Benbi and Nisar, 2019, De
Stefano and Jacobson, 2017, DíazLezcano et al., 2020) with these
being higher in tropical and subtropical climates (Hübner et al., 2021)
with 1/5 of all living soil biomass represented by roots. Hassán et
al. (2017) reported in single and multiple living fence systems soil
organic carbon contents of 39.35 and 37.76 t C.ha
-1
, respectively.
In Research conducted in Colombia by Contreras Santos et
al. (2020), who compared soil carbon sequestration in different
silvopastoral arrangements (pasture + forage shrubs (SSP1), pasture
+ forage trees (SSP2), pasture + forage shrubs + forage trees (SSP3)
and pasture + forage shrubs + forage trees + timber trees (SSP4))
with pasture growing in monoculture. The results indicated that in
the silvopastoral systems, soil carbon accumulation ranged from 60.6
(SSP2) to 65.1 (SSP1) t.ha
-1
, while in the monoculture pasture it was
38.3 t.ha
-1
. This indicates that the accumulation of C in silvopastoral
systems in the soil increased between 58.2 and 69.9 % with respect
to pasture alone. They concluded that the presence of forage trees in
livestock systems increases the carbon storage capacity of the soil.
Other research conducted by Contreras Santos et al. (2023),
comparing two silvopastoral systems with naturalized grass pastures
without trees, obtained values of 33.20 and 33.70 t C.ha
-1
and 24 t
C.ha
-1
, respectively, demonstrating that these systems have a high
potential to x atmospheric carbon.
Measurement and quantication of carbon sequestration in
agroforestry systems: Advances and challenges
Accurate measurement of carbon stored in agroforestry systems is
fundamental to understand their contribution to carbon sequestration.
However, this task faces methodological challenges due to the
complexity of these systems.
Traditional measurement techniques in agricultural soils often
underestimate the carbon stored in agroforestry systems, given
the greater organic matter at greater depths. To overcome this,
comprehensive approaches combining direct measurements with
remote sensing and modeling have been adopted that allow accurate
estimation of soil carbon concentration, scaling up data collection to
a larger and less invasive scale (Chen et al., 2019).
Remote sensing technologies, such as satellite imagery and drones,
enable the assessment of spatial and temporal patterns of tree biomass
and vegetation, which are fundamental to understanding carbon
dynamics in agroforestry systems. These tools not only provide a
panoramic view of vegetation distribution, but also generate biomass
Cifuentes Jara (2010) has pointed out that climate alterations cause
negative
effects
on
agricultural
systems,
including
the
length
and
seasonality of crop cycles, physiological alterations due to exceeding
the temperatures to which crops are adapted, water deciencies and
increased erosion due to soil drying and increased surface runoff, and
indirectly affect the incidence of pests and diseases, soil cycling and
nutrient availability, and increase the propensity to res.
In
this
context,
agroforestry
systems
are
an
alternative
within
animal production systems, since they can prevent soil degradation,
recover soil fertility through the use of leguminous plants and recycle
nutrients. Additionally, at a global level, their benets are centered on
carbon sequestration, biodiversity and cultural landscaping.
According to Dolliger and Jose (2019), silvopastoral systems are
the key to the transformation from traditional agriculture to climate-
smart
agriculture
that
increases
productivity
in
a
sustainable
and
resilient way while reducing or avoiding greenhouse gases.
A
large
part
of
the
carbon
in
the
atmosphere
can
be
naturally
stored by plants in aerial biomass, through photosynthesis processes,
and
another
part
in
the
soil,
through
the
accumulation
of
organic
matter (Contreras-Santos
et al., 2021), as it is considered the largest
carbon reservoir (López-Santiago
et al., 2019). Trees convert carbon
dioxide into plant biomass, storing carbon in tissues such as trunks,
branches, leaves and roots (Yirefu Tefera, 2019). Species diversity in
agroforestry systems increases photosynthetic efciency by exploiting
complementary ecological niches. Both scattered trees in paddocks,
live
fences,
silvopastoral
systems
have
the
potential
to
sequester
carbon
far
exceeding
>19%
of
what
can
be
xed
by
conventional
agricultural systems or treeless grasslands (Shi
et al., 2018).
Carbon sequestration in agroforestry systems
It has been reported that the importance of agroforestry systems in
carbon sequestration is centered on two reasons. The rst is that the
tree component captures atmospheric carbon through photosynthesis,
since these trees are perennial plants and store it, behaving as active
carbon sinks for long periods of time. The second reason is because
agroforestry
systems
reduce
the
need
to
deforest
new
tropical
and
temperate forests for migratory agriculture (Clemente-Arenas, 2021).
In
this
variable,
the
density
of
trees
in
the
various
production
systems directly affects the calculations of carbon sequestered in the
form
of
biomass,
both
live
and
in
the
form
of
litter
on
the
soil,
as
well as by the tree species used, the most common being Leucaena
leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Sesbania
sp., Erithrina
sp.,
Acacia
sp.,
Guazuma ulmifolia,
Prosopis juliora,
Albizia saman,
Tabebuia
rosea,
Enterolobium cyclocarpum
(Soriano-Robles
et al., 2018, León
et al., 2020).
In live fence systems depending on the species, it can be located
between
1.7
-
8.9
t.km
-1
.yr
-1
and
scattered
trees
in
paddocks
1-5
t
C.ha
-1
(Villanueva
et al., 2018), while, paddocks without trees 4.38 t
C.ha
-1
, with low density of trees 7.49 t C.ha
-1
and with a high density
of trees 27.54 t C.ha
-1
(Melgar-Ramirez
et al., 2018). Hassán
et al.
(2017) recorded differences between simple (one or two species) and
multiple
(more
than
two
species)
fence
types,
obtaining
values
of
3.76 and 5.77 t C.ha
-1
aerial, respectively.
In a silvopastoral system with 19 years of established
Hyparrehnia
rufa
and
Guazuma ulmifolia, Jiménez
et al. (2019) reported values in
the fractions of tree biomass with 16.46 t C.ha
-1
, forage contribution
1.4 t C.ha
-1
and 1.9 t C.ha
-1
in dead material or litter.
Authors such as Contreras-Santos
et al. (2023), demonstrated in
their
research
that
the
associations
between
grasses
(Megathyrsus
maximus
cv
Sabanera
Agrosavia
and
Megathyrsus
maximus
cv
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Razz and León. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2023, 40 (Supplement): e2340Spl035-6 |
maps and thus indirect estimates of carbon in aboveground vegetation
(Zhang et al., 2021).
Simulation models also play a key role in quantifying carbon in
agroforestry systems. These models simulate various management,
plant composition and land use scenarios, facilitating the assessment
of long-term effects on carbon sequestration (Mandal et al., 2020).
However, these models require accurate and up-to-date empirical data
to generate reliable results.
Despite methodological advances, challenges persist in
accurately measuring carbon in agroforestry systems (Dold et al.,
2019). The heterogeneity of these systems makes it difcult to obtain
representative samples and extrapolations to larger scales. The lack
of methodological standards can lead to inconsistent results across
studies, complicating the comparison and synthesis of ndings.
Conclusion
There is sufcient scientic evidence that has shown that climate
change in recent years has become one of the main problems that
society is facing, not only from the environmental point of view, but
also the impact on human health, demographics and the economic base
of society. The challenge today is to control or reduce greenhouse gas
emissions caused by anthropogenic activities, through agreements
between governments of developed countries and environmental and
social policies.
An important point for this problem is mitigation, and in this sense,
the use of agroforestry systems is a viable option, the contribution
of these systems can be important when considering their benets,
among which we can mention the sequestration and storage of carbon
from the aerial part, soil and roots, and that when well managed can
be considered as important carbon sinks and thus reduce the negative
impact of gas emissions that affect the environment.
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